In recent years, Carbon Capture and Storage (Sequestration) (CCS) has been proposed as a potential method to allow the continued use of fossil-fuelled power stations whilst preventing emissions of CO2 from reaching the atmosphere. Gas, coal (and biomass)-fired power stations can respond to changes in demand more readily than many other sources of electricity production, hence the importance of retaining them as an option in the energy mix. Here, we review the leading CO2 capture technologies, available in the short and long term, and their technological maturity, before discussing CO2 transport and storage. Current pilot plants and demonstrations are highlighted, as is the importance of optimising the CCS system as a whole. Other topics briefly discussed include the viability of both the capture of CO2 from the air and CO2 reutilisation as climate change mitigation strategies. Finally, we discuss the economic and legal aspects of CCS.

Carbon capture and storage update

The flow of homogeneous fluids through porous media: analogies with other physical problems

With the decline in oil discoveries during the last decades it is believed that EOR technologies will play a key role to meet the energy demand in years to come. This paper presents a comprehensive review of EOR status and opportunities to increase final recovery factors in reservoirs ranging from extra heavy oil to gas condensate. Specifically, the paper discusses EOR status and opportunities organized by reservoir lithology (sandstone and carbonates formations and turbiditic reservoirs to a lesser extent) and offshore and onshore fields. Risk and rewards of EOR methods including growing trends in recent years such as CO2 injection, high pressure air injection (HPAI) and chemical flooding are addressed including a brief overview of CO2-EOR project economics.

Enhanced Oil Recovery: An Update Review

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change assumes the warming of the climate system, associating the increase of global average temperature to the observed increase of the anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) is considered the most important GHG, due to the dependence of world economies on fossil fuels, since their combustion processes are the most important sources of this gas. CO 2 concentrations are increasing in the last decades mainly due to the increase of anthropogenic emissions. The processes involving CO 2 capture and storage is gaining attention on the scientific community as an alternative for decreasing CO 2 emission, reducing its concentration in ambient air. However, several technological, economical and environmental issues as well as safety problems remain to be solved, such as the following needs: increase of CO 2 capture efficiency, reduction of process costs, and verification of environmental sustainability of CO 2 storage. This paper aims to review the recent developments (from 2006 until now) on the carbon capture and storage (CCS) methodologies. Special attention was focused on the basic findings achieved in CCS operational projects.

Recent developments on carbon capture and storage: An overview

The rate of natural carbonation of tectonically exposed mantle peridotite during weathering and low-temperature alteration can be enhanced to develop a significant sink for atmospheric CO2. Natural carbonation of peridotite in the Samail ophiolite, an uplifted slice of oceanic crust and upper mantle in the Sultanate of Oman, is surprisingly rapid. Carbonate veins in mantle peridotite in Oman have an average 14C age of ≈26,000 years, and are not 30–95 million years old as previously believed. These data and reconnaissance mapping show that ≈104 to 105 tons per year of atmospheric CO2 are converted to solid carbonate minerals via peridotite weathering in Oman. Peridotite carbonation can be accelerated via drilling, hydraulic fracture, input of purified CO2 at elevated pressure, and, in particular, increased temperature at depth. After an initial heating step, CO2 pumped at 25 or 30 °C can be heated by exothermic carbonation reactions that sustain high temperature and rapid reaction rates at depth with little expenditure of energy. In situ carbonation of peridotite could consume >1 billion tons of CO2 per year in Oman alone, affording a low-cost, safe, and permanent method to capture and store atmospheric CO2.

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In situ carbonation of peridotite for CO2 storage

1. The Role of Petroleum Production Engineering. 2. Production from Undersaturated Oil Reservoirs. 3. Production from Two-Phase Reservoirs. 4. Production from Natural Gas Reservoirs. 5. The Near-Wellbore Condition and Damage Characterization Skin Effects. 6. Gravel Pack Completions. 7. Wellbore Flow Performance. 8. Well Deliverability. 9. Forecast of Well Production. 10. Wellhead and Surface Gathering Systems. 11. Modern Well Test Analysis. 12. Well Test Design and Data Acquisition. 13. Production Logging Measurements and Analysis. 14. Well Diagnosis with Production Logging. 15. Pressure Transient Testing with Measured Sandface Flow Rates. 16. Gas Well Testing. 17. Matrix Simulation-Chemistry of Acid Rock Reactions. 18. Sandstone Acidizing Design. 19. Carbonate Acidizing Design. 20. Hydraulic Fracturing for Well Simulation. 21. Design of Hydraulic Fracture Treatments. 22. The Performance of Hydraulically-Fractured and Long-Flowing Wells. 23. Gas Lift. 24. Pump-Assisted Lift. 25. Petroleum System Analysis. 26. Environmental Issues in Petroleum Production. Appendix.

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Petroleum production systems

Hydraulically Induced Fractures in the Petroleum and Related Industries. Linear Elasticity, Fracture Shapes and Induced Stresses. Stresses in Formations. Fracture Geometry. Rheology and Laminar Flow. Non-Laminar Flow and Solids Transport. Advanced Topics of Rheology and Fluid Mechanics. Material Balance. Coupling of Elasticity, Flow and Material Balance. Fracture Propagation. Fracture Height Growth (3D and P-3D Geometries). Appendix. References. Index.

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Hydraulic fracture mechanics

The state of natural gas

This paper presents screening criteria for vertical and horizontal wells with or without induced fractures. The parametric basis of such screening makes the decision on either type of well more objective. A simple procedure to calculate the optimum number of orthogonal transverse fractures in horizontal wells and their sizes is also presented. Two important comparisons have not appeared in the literature: the performance of a fully completed horizontal well with that of a hydraulically fractured well and the performance of a hydraulically fractured horizontal well with that of a hydraulically fractured vertical well. In addition, previous work does not take into account the effect of the plumbing system on well performance. This paper is intended to fill these gaps.

Michael J. Economides

Papers

Petroleum production systems

Hydraulic fracture mechanics

The state of natural gas

A parametric comparison of horizontal and vertical well performance

Sequestering carbon dioxide in a closed underground volume