The effectiveness of virtual environments (VEs) has often been linked to the sense of presence reported by users of those VEs. (Presence is defined as the subjective experience of being in one place or environment, even when one is physically situated in another.) We believe that presence is a normal awareness phenomenon that requires directed attention and is based in the interaction between sensory stimulation, environmental factors that encourage involvement and enable immersion, and internal tendencies to become involved. Factors believed to underlie presence were described in the premier issue of Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments. We used these factors and others as the basis for a presence questionnaire (PQ) to measure presence in VEs. In addition we developed an immersive tendencies questionnaire (ITQ) to measure differences in the tendencies of individuals to experience presence. These questionnaires are being used to evaluate relationships among reported presence and other research variables. Combined results from four experiments lead to the following conclusions: 
the PQ and ITQ are internally consistent measures with high reliability;
there is a weak but consistent positive relation between presence and task performance in VEs;
individual tendencies as measured by the ITQ predict presence as measured by the PQ; and
individuals who report more simulator sickness symptoms in VE report less presence than those who report fewer symptoms.

/pdf/measuring-presence-in-virtual-environments-a-presence-40c26nz3zb.pdf

Measuring Presence in Virtual Environments: A Presence Questionnaire

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Despite the word's common usage by gamers and reviewers alike, it is still not clear what immersion means. This paper explores immersion further by investigating whether immersion can be defined quantitatively, describing three experiments in total. The first experiment investigated participants' abilities to switch from an immersive to a non-immersive task. The second experiment investigated whether there were changes in participants' eye movements during an immersive task. The third experiment investigated the effect of an externally imposed pace of interaction on immersion and affective measures (state anxiety, positive affect, negative affect). Overall the findings suggest that immersion can be measured subjectively (through questionnaires) as well as objectively (task completion time, eye movements). Furthermore, immersion is not only viewed as a positive experience: negative emotions and uneasiness (i.e. anxiety) also run high.

Measuring and defining the experience of immersion in games

Constructing a valid measure of presence and discovering the factors that contribute to presence have been much sought after goals of presence researchers and at times have generated controversy among them. This paper describes the results of principal-components analyses of Presence Questionnaire (PQ) data from 325 participants following exposure to immersive virtual environments. The analyses suggest that a 4-factor model provides the best fit to our data. The factors are Involvement, Adaptation/Immersion, Sensory Fidelity, and Interface Quality. Except for the Adaptation/Immersion factor, these factors corresponded to those identified in a cluster analysis of data from an earlier version of the questionnaire. The existence of an Adaptation/Immersion factor leads us to postulate that immersion is greater for those individuals who rapidly and easily adapt to the virtual environment. The magnitudes of the correlations among the factors indicate moderately strong relationships among the 4 factors. Within these relationships, Sensory Fidelity items seem to be more closely related to Involvement, whereas Interface Quality items appear to be more closely related to Adaptation/Immersion, even though there is a moderately strong relationship between the Involvement and Adaptation/Immersion factors.

/pdf/the-factor-structure-of-the-presence-questionnaire-2kq6iabcz7.pdf

The factor structure of the presence questionnaire

This report represents a committee summary of the current state of knowledge regarding aftereffects and sense of presence in virtual environments (VEs). The work presented in this article, and the proposed research agenda, are the result of a special session that was set up in the framework of the Seventh International Conference on Human Computer Interaction Recommendations were made by the committee regarding research needs in after effects and sense of presence, and, where possible, priorities were suggested. The research needs were structured in terms of the short medium, and long term and, if followed, should lead toward the effective use of VE technology. The 2 most critical research issues identified were (a) standardization and use of measurement approaches for aftereffects and (b) identification and prioritization of sensorimotor discordances that drive after effects. Identification of aftereffects countermeasures (i.e., techniques to assist users in readily transitioning between the real and vir...

Aftereffects and sense of presence in virtual environments: formulation of a research and development agenda.

I: Simulation Fidelity: Definitions, Problems, and Historical Perspectives.- 1: Definitions and Problems in Training System Design.- Rationale for use of training devices.- Current training system design practices.- The need for training system design guidance.- 2: A Conceptual History of Simulation Fidelity.- Learning theory.- Transfer of training research.- Degree of simulation.- Human factors inputs to device design.- Psychological fidelity.- Device effectiveness prediction.- The Army Research Institute's fidelity workshop.- Simulation fidelity.- Specifying fidelity in training systems.- 3: Simulation Fidelity as an Organizing Concept.- A working definition of fidelity.- Departures from high fidelity.- Fidelity and training effectiveness.- Fidelity and task analysis.- Fidelity analysis.- 4: A History of Device-based Training Systems.- Early years.- Early 20th century.- World War II.- The 1950's.- The 1960's and 1970's.- The 1980's and beyond.- Summary.- Future training options.- II: Fidelity and Training System Research.- 5: Training Effectiveness Evaluation.- Formative and summative evaluations.- General training evaluation measurement issues.- Types of training effectiveness assessment.- Assessing cost effectiveness.- Evaluating training effectiveness.- Conclusions.- 6: Aviation Training Research.- Early aviation research.- Modern aviation training research.- Summary of aviation training research.- 7: Operator and Maintenance Training Research.- Operator training.- Maintenance training.- Research on other variables.- Summary.- 8: Training for Cognitive Skills.- Training games.- Management training.- Logistics training and research.- Environmental simulation.- Health care training.- Training for international relations.- Summary.- III: Recent Fidelity Research.- 9: Systematic Fidelity Research.- Orientation for fidelity research.- A Perceptual-Motor Task.- An Electro-mechanical Troubleshooting Task.- Summary.- 10: Fidelity Research on Fault Diagnosis and Other Maintenance Tasks.- Development of computer simulations for fault diagnosis.- Training electronic switchboard maintenance.- Diagnostic training for nuclear power tasks.- Tutoring and context-specific simulation.- Fidelity requirements in maintenance training and aiding.- Summary.- IV: Current Trends and Future Directions In Training System Design.- 11: Current Trends in Training Systems: Computer-based Instruction, Embedded Training, and Artificial Intelligence.- Computer-based instruction.- Embedded training.- Artificial intelligence.- Summary.- 12: Systems Approach to Training Design.- Instructional systems development.- Modeling training systems.- Systems approach to fidelity.- 13: Current Simulation Fidelity Guidance and Areas for Future Research.- The training system development cycle.- Training needs assessment.- Training program design.- Implement program of instruction.- Evaluate the program of instruction.- References.

Michael J. Singer

Papers

Measuring Presence in Virtual Environments: A Presence Questionnaire

The factor structure of the presence questionnaire

Aftereffects and sense of presence in virtual environments: formulation of a research and development agenda.

Simulation Fidelity in Training System Design: Bridging the Gap Between Reality and Training

Simulation Fidelity in Training System Design