This article addresses the centrality of the self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. Self-per- cepts of efficacy influence thought patterns, actions, and emotional arousal. In causal tests the higher the level of induced self-efficacy, the higher the perfor- mance accomplishments and the lower the emotional arousal. Different lines of research are reviewed, show- ing that the self-efficacy mechanism may have wide explanatory power. Perceived self-efficacy helps to ac- count for such diverse phenomena as changes in coping behavior produced by different modes of influence, level of physiological stress reactions, self-regulation of refractory behavior, resignation and despondency to failure experiences, self-debilitating effects of proxy control and illusory inefficaciousness, achievement strivings, growth of intrinsic interest, and career pur- suits. The influential role of perceived collective effi- cacy in social change is analyzed, as are the social con- ditions conducive to development of collective inefficacy. Psychological theorizing and research tend to cen- ter on issues concerning either acquisition of knowledge or execution of response patterns. As a result the processes governing the interrelation- ship between knowledge and action have been largely neglected (Newell, 1978). Some of the re- cent efforts to bridge this gap have been directed at the biomechanics problem—how efferent com- mands of action plans guide the production of ap- propriate response patterns (Stelmach, 1976,1978). Others have approached the matter in terms of algorithmic knowledge, which furnishes guides for executing action sequences (Greeno, 1973; Newell, 1973). ,

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Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency

Introduction 1. Woman's Place in Man's Life Cycle 2. Images of Relationship 3. Concepts of Self and Morality 4. Crisis and Transition 5. Women's Rights and Women's Judgment 6. Visions of Maturity References Index of Study Participants General Index

In a Different Voice. Psychological Theory and Women’s Development. Cambridge, MA (Harvard University Press) 1982.

Perceived self-efficacy is concerned with people's beliefs in their capabilities to produce given attainments (Bandura, 1997). One cannot be all things, which would require mastery of every realm of human life. People differ in the areas in which they cultivate their efficacy and in the levels to which they develop it even within their given pursuits. For example, a business executive may have a high sense of organizational efficacy but low parenting efficacy. Thus, the efficacy belief system is not a global trait but a differentiated set of self-beliefs linked to distinct realms of functioning. Multidomain measures reveal the patterning and degree of generality of people's sense of personal efficacy. There is no all-purpose measure of perceived self-efficacy. The " one measure fits all " approach usually has limited explanatory and predictive value because most of the items in an all-purpose test may have little or no relevance to the domain of functioning. Moreover, in an effort to serve all purposes, items in such a measure are usually cast in general terms divorced from the situational demands and circumstances. This leaves much ambiguity about exactly what is being measured or the level of task and situational demands that must be managed. Scales of perceived self-CHAPTER 14 Note that this date is incorrect. The book was published in 2006. 308 A. BANDURA efficacy must be tailored to the particular domain of functioning that is the object of interest. Although efficacy beliefs are multifaceted, social cognitive theory identifies several conditions under which they may co-vary even across distinct domains of functioning (Bandura, 1997). When different spheres of activity are governed by similar sub-skills there is some inter-domain relation in perceived efficacy. Proficient performance is partly guided by higher-order self-regulatory skills. These include generic skills for diagnosing task demands, constructing and evaluating alternative courses of action, setting proximal goals to guide one's efforts, and creating self-incentives to sustain engagement in taxing activities and to manage stress and debilitating intrusive thoughts. Generic self-management strategies developed in one realm of activity are serviceable in other activity domains with resulting co-variation in perceived efficacy among them. Co-development is still another correlative process. Even if different activity domains are not sub-served by common sub-skills, the same perceived efficacy can occur if development of competencies is socially structured so that skills in dissimilar domains are developed together. For example, students are likely to develop similarly high perceived self-efficacy …

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Guide for constructing self-efficacy scales

A review is presented of the book “Heuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment,” edited by Thomas Gilovich, Dale Griffin, and Daniel Kahneman.

Heuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment

Much research in the last two decades has demon- strated that human responses deviate from the performance deemed normative according to various models of decision mak- ing and rational judgment (e.g., the basic axioms of utility theory). This gap between the normative and the descriptive can be inter- preted as indicating systematic irrationalities in human cognition. However, four alternative interpretations preserve the assumption that human behavior and cognition is largely rational. These posit that the gap is due to (1) performance errors, (2) computational limitations, (3) the wrong norm being applied by the experi- menter, and (4) a different construal of the task by the subject. In the debates about the viability of these alternative explanations, attention has been focused too narrowly on the modal response. In a series of experiments involving most of the classic tasks in the heuristics and biases literature, we have examined the implica- tions of individual differences in performance for each of the four explanations of the normative/descriptive gap. Performance er- rors are a minor factor in the gap; computational limitations un- derlie non-normative responding on several tasks, particularly those that involve some type of cognitive decontextualization. Un- expected patterns of covariance can suggest when the wrong norm is being applied to a task or when an alternative construal of the task should be considered appropriate.

https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/S0140525X00003435

Individual differences in reasoning: Implications for the rationality debate?

Peer victimization and internalizing problems in children: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies

Although schemas play a central role in cognitive conceptualizations of personality disorders, research devoted to the assessment of schemas has been scarce. This article describes the preliminary validation of a measure of schemas relevant to personality disorders. The Schema Questionnaire (SQ) was developed using five independent samples (N=1,564). In study 1, factor analyses using a student sample revealed 13 primary schemas. A hierarchical factor analysis revealed three higher-order factors. In study 2, factor analyses using a patient sample revealed 15 primary schemas. The patient and student samples produced similar sets of primary factors which also closely matched the rationally developed schemas and their hypothesized hierarchical relationships (Young, 1991). The primary subscales were found to possess adequate test-retest reliability and internal consistency. In study 3, the SQ was found to possess convergent and discriminant validity with respect to measures of psychological distress, self-esteem, cognitive vulnerability for depression, and personality disorder symptoms.

The schema questionnaire: Investigation of psychometric properties and the hierarchical structure of a measure of maladaptive schemas

Previous meta-analytic research has shown both concurrent and prospective linkages between peer victimization and internalizing problems in youth. However, the linkages between peer victimization and externalizing problems over time have not been systematically examined, and it is therefore unknown if externalizing problems are antecedents of victimization, consequences of victimization, both, or neither. This study provides a meta-analysis of 14 longitudinal studies examining prospective linkages between peer victimization and externalizing problems (n = 7,821). Two prospective paths were examined: the extent to which peer victimization at baseline predicts future residualized changes in externalizing problems, as well as the extent to which externalizing problems at baseline predict future residualized changes in peer victimization. Results revealed significant associations between peer victimization and subsequent residualized changes in externalizing problems, as well as significant associations between externalizing problems and subsequent residualized changes in peer victimization. Hence, externalizing problems function as both antecedents and consequences of peer victimization.

Prospective linkages between peer victimization and externalizing problems in children: A meta-analysis

Psychological approaches in the treatment of specific phobias: a meta-analysis.

Initial interest in the causes and treatment of panic disorder was triggered by biological theories and investigators. More recently, however, research on newly developed psychological approaches for panic has advanced our understanding of the disorder and has led to the development of specific treatment programs. Typically, these programs consist of a range of treatment components that more or less directly target panic attacks and the fears and behaviors associated with them. The paper reviews four studies evaluating these programs that have recently been completed or are close to completion in different centers in the United States (Albany, New York; Austin, Texas) and Europe (Oxford, England; Marburg, Germany). Conforming to strict methodological standards, these studies report consistently high success rates and temporal stability of the treatment gains. About 80% or more of the patients receiving combined cognitive-behavioral treatments achieved panic free status as well as strong and clinically significant improvement in general anxiety, panic-related cognitions, depression, and phobic avoidance. Furthermore, these gains were maintained at follow-ups of up to 2 years. The success of these psychological treatments compares favorably with the outcome for the established pharmacological treatments. In addition, the studies provide new insights into the active ingredients that may operate in cognitive-behavioral treatments for panic disorder and show the feasibility of group treatments. Together, these studies underscore the fact that cognitive-behavioral treatments rest on firm experimental evidence that justifies their application in everyday practice as well as continued research into their mechanisms of action.

Michael J. Telch

Papers

Peer victimization and internalizing problems in children: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies

The schema questionnaire: Investigation of psychometric properties and the hierarchical structure of a measure of maladaptive schemas

Prospective linkages between peer victimization and externalizing problems in children: A meta-analysis

Psychological approaches in the treatment of specific phobias: a meta-analysis.

Psychological treatment of panic