Imagined communities: Reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism

Social Psychology (2nd ed.).

A presidential campaign is a fine spectacle. If it is no more than that, for whatever reasons, it is time to ask why. When the republic was being arranged, the Federalist papers burrowed deeply into regions of political thought and meanings. Nearly two centuries later, the ordained rhythms of politics seem an end in themselves, concerned with a transition of parties and power but not a transition of reason or purpose. It is a troubling curtain raiser on our third century.

Politics and reason.

Indigenous Peoples in International Law, 2nd ed. By S. James Anaya. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. Pp. xi, 396. ISBN 0-19-517350-3. GB£11.99; US$24.95.

This study examines patterns of cultural adaptation of an ethnic minority as manifested in consumption of traditional ethnic and mainstream culture foods. A survey, containing multiple measures of several ethnic identification and acculturation dimensions, along with consumption frequencies of both traditional and mainstream culture foods, was administered to a sample of ethnic Lebanese residing in a predominately French-speaking urban area. The results confirm that ethnic identity and acculturation are distinct processes, providing strong support for dual process models of cultural adaptation. A series of structural equation models linking the twin cultural influences to the consumption of traditional home and mainstream host food categories found little support for the linearity assumption between cultural adaptation and consumption behavior. Rather, the relationship between ethnic identity, acculturation, and consumption behaviors appears to be far more complex, and specific to the food category under consideration. Mapping these patterns of cultural adaptation, we articulate a new typology, relating the extent and particular combinations that home and host cultural influences impact consumption behavior.

Acculturation and Consumption: A texture of Cultural Adaptation

This article is based on the research results which were intended to identify consumerism trends among the Orang Asli
, particularly with regards to purchase of luxury goods and management of their finances. The concept of consumerism refers to the motivation of an individual to identify himself or herself by means of a product or service, especially one which is commercially branded and denotes status. A total of 215 Orang Asli from five settlements in the district of Jelebu were involved in this study. Gathering of information was done by means of both qualitative and quantitative data collections. These include in-depth interviews and observations along with the simple random survey technique using questionnaires. Research findings show that consumerism among the Orang Asli
does not differ much from other mainstream communities. They
employ luxury items and services in very much the same way as done by other mainstream communities. From the aspect of
financial management, however, they occupy the lowest rungs, and a substantial portion of their income is allocated for the purpose of procuring luxury goods. This is done to such an extent that it denies them the means for other more important and needed purposes. The implication of this research finding is that knowledge and information regarding the utilization and management of finances ought to be assimilated by the Orang Asli community, so that they do not become victims of modern-world hedonism and luxury brought about by the mainstream society.

Acculturation of consumerism among the Orang Asli community inJelebu, Negeri Sembilan

This paper argues that Malaysian education systems which have a mainstream orientation and very little consideration is given to the educational requirements, cultural context and also languages of Indigenous peoples (Orang Asli). This has indirectly impacted the educational outcomes for Orang Asli students with limited acknowledgment of the rights of Indigenous people in the education system. Therefore, it is important for educators to address educational disadvantage and the rights of Orang Asli in schools because it can contribute to social justice and hinder the learning process and education outcomes. This paper adopts Michel Foucault's notion of power, knowledge and normalization in explaining and understanding the issues in aspects of language, culture and pedagogy in schools. In this paper, I focus on normalization issues in education policy for Indigenous peoples which has impacted on the academic performance of Orang Asli students. Lastly, this paper provides analysis of the current practices and policy of Indigenous education that can contribute to improving the current policy and ensuring justice for all students. These issues remain important in improving equity and self-determination among Orang Asli and ensuring social justice for Orang Asli in Malaysia.

Indigenous education policy in Malaysia: a discussion of normalization in schooling

United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) was created to give Indigenous peoples the right to determine their own educational system. In article 14 it is stated that, Indigenous peoples have the right to establish and control their educational systems and institutions, providing education in their own languages; in a manner appropriate to their cultural methods of teaching and learning. Ever since the 61 years of independence, Orang Asli has never been neglected or excluded from the government’s planning in ensuring their education development. Therefore, this paper relied on the qualitative approach using secondary data. This paper reviews the current and the past reports from 1995 until 2015 that reflect the shifts in government policy of Indigenous education in Malaysia. The data were then analysed using thematic analysis. Evidences from a range of reports, have been utilised to shed light on why Indigenous peoples’ educational disadvantage persists, despite extensive government and community effort and resources. This paper also highlights and recommends the self-determination, equity and recognition for Orang Asli education system. Furthermore, Orang Asli have the best knowledge of their culture and curriculum needs and the most appropriate approach, which enable them to cater for their own particular circumstances and create a successful outcome in the development of Indigenous education policy. Keyword: Indigenous Education Policy, Orang Asli, Equity, Recognition, Human Rights Introduction The United Nations International Decade (1995-2004) addressed some issues such as human rights, the environment, development, health, culture and education during the second session of the UN Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues. One of the aims of the Forum was the discrimination suffered by Indigenous peoples in the education system, the loss of Indigenous languages, the exclusion of Indigenous cultures and knowledge from the school curricula, and the need to promote the participation and contribution of Indigenous peoples in the development of culturally and linguistically appropriate educational programs. For this reason the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) is created to give Indigenous peoples the right to determine their own education system (UNDRIP, 2007). Article 14 states that, Indigenous peoples have the right to establish and International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences Vol. 9 , No. 10, October, 2019, E-ISSN: 2222-6990 © 2019 HRMARS 151 control their educational systems and institutions and provide education in their own languages; in a manner appropriate to their cultural methods of teaching and learning. Moreover, Indigenous individuals, particularly children have the rights to all levels and forms of education of the state without any discrimination (UNDRIP, 2007). Education for indigenous peoples cannot be considered in isolation from the issues of discrimination, democracy and human rights. Article 6 of the World Declaration on Education for All states that, successful learning can only take place in healthy and culturally appropriate environments as learning connects many aspects of life with the well-being of the learner (UNESCO, 2000, p. 8). Furthermore, Indigenous education is within the context of contemporary discussions on how it is linked with cultural, linguistic and biological diversity as well as its association with issues of identity, survival and sustainability (Mohd Roslan, 2014, 2016). Education is a prerequisite, and a tool for enhancing the opportunities for learners to exercise their social, cultural, economic, civil and political rights and responsibilities. Education for Orang Asli must therefore be considered on the basis of recognition and understanding and promotion of human rights specifically the rights to cultural identity in which it can also contribute to the pluralist societies (Mohd Roslan, 2014; Mohd Roslan & Sara, 2015). In Malaysia, the development of Orang Asli via education is significantly in line with the physical growth of infrastructural and modern agricultural methods introduced by the government in 1960 (Asnarulkhadi, Maria, Zahid, Mariani, & Hanina, 2007). The measures taken to improve the quality of the life of the Orang Asli and their education in particular, are not new. The government of Malaysia has introduced initiatives to integrate minority groups into the mainstream and this can be seen as a measure to fulfil social participation (Asnarulkhadi, 2005; Roslan, 2010; Sarjit, Roslan, & Ma'rof, 2010). In Malaysia, these initiatives constituted part of the Second Malaya Plan (1961-1965) until the Tenth Malaysia Plan (2011-2015). However, the curriculum is developed and modelled on mainstream curricula without taking any account of the Orang Asli cultural issues (Mohd Roslan, 2014; Mohd Roslan & Sara, 2015). However these cultural issues are not incorporated in the educational process in which it can actually help to preserve the culture or even apply the knowledge in the classroom setting. The integration of minority groups into the mainstream curricula is based on policies created by the government with the intention to provide the best education for the Indigenous people. However, the efforts and policies established by the government to increase education among the Orang Asli has resulted in vain as studies showed that these efforts do not provide the best education for them (Hasan, 2009; Hasmah, 2013; Nicholas, 2006). In terms of education, aboriginal communities are still far behind compared to the mainstream society (Hasan, 1997, 2009; Hasmah, 2013; Nicholas, 2006; O. Omar, 2004; Sumathi, 2016). For almost 60 years of mainstream education for the Orang Asli, the education issues for Indigenous groups have not been resolved. This lack of progress in education begs the question: is the education policy made by the government today more beneficial to the mainstream society than to the Orang Asli community? This question remains important because the Orang Asli are still behind in terms of educational achievement (see the report of Department of Orang Asli Development, 2011). The mainstream education system is International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences Vol. 9 , No. 10, October, 2019, E-ISSN: 2222-6990 © 2019 HRMARS 152 rejected by the Orang Asli in Malaysia (Mohd Roslan, 2013; Nicholas, 2006; Tijah & Joseph, 2003). This situation is often characterized by a lack of access to an education that respects the diverse cultures and languages of the Orang Asli. Despite of this evidence, the government in Malaysia seems to ignore the issues raised by the Orang Asli and continues to impose a mainstream education system on them (see the report of SUHAKAM, 2011a; SUHAKAM, 2011b, 2012). This paper argues that Orang Asli has education system which has a mainstream orientation and very little consideration is given to the educational requirements, cultural context and also languages of Indigenous peoples. This has indirectly impacted the educational outcomes for Indigenous students with limited acknowledgment of the rights of Indigenous people in the education system. Therefore, it is important for educators to address educational disadvantage and the rights of Indigenous people in schools because it can contribute to social justice and hinder the learning process and education outcomes. This paper provides analysis of the current practices and policy of Indigenous education that can contribute to improving the current policy and ensuring justice for all students. These issues remain important in improving equity and self-determination among Indigenous people and ensuring social justice for Indigenous peoples in Malaysia. Therefore, my argument is that the rights to education for the Orang Asli should be based on minimum standards promoted by the United Nations Declaration on The Right of Indigenous peoples (UNDRIP), which states that ‘Everyone has the right to education’ (Article 26.1) and that ‘Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children’ (Article 26.3). Access to education is important in determining positive socio-cultural outcomes of people in all societies. It is critical that cultural models of education are respected and recognized and not simply ‘tolerated’ in order for different frameworks to co-exist and for all students to have equal access to education within culturally diverse societies (Mohd Roslan, Mansor, & Nik Alia Fahada, 2019). For example, the concept of tolerance which was introduced by Derrida (2006) in his work The Politics of Friendship stresses that tolerance is something unconditional and will benefit both sides. Tolerance is in this way subsumed in a responsibility for the other. Tolerance is surpassed in accordance with one’s own will and desire, one takes as one’s task the fulfilment of the desire of the life-project the other cannot actualize. International Standards for Orang Asli Education Rights: The UNDRIP In pledging to pursue in the spirit of partnership and mutual respect, international communities, including Malaysia should reflect on the contemporary standard made by UNDRIP (Mohd Roslan, 2016). This is supported in preambular para. 24 which clearly mentions about this pledge made by the UNDRIP and UN General Assembly (Subramaniam, 2011). Hypothetically, the UNDRIP lays out a ‘roadmap for future realisation of Indigenous rights’ (Gilbert & Doyle, 2011, p. 327). Malaysia, which is the member of the UN and the UN Human Rights Council protects human rights under arts 1(3), 13(1)(b), 55(c), 56, 62(2) and 76(c) of the Charter of the United Nations (UN Charter). As for these provisions, art 56 of the UN Charter member states that ‘to take joint and separate cooperation with the organization’ for the protection and promotion of human rights and the fundame

https://hrmars.com/papers_submitted/6470/Indigenous_Education_Rights_The_Malaysian_Case.pdf

Indigenous Education Rights: The Malaysian Case

Malaysia is a country of diverse ethnicities and cultures. This phenomenon has created various social perceptions and stereotypes between different ethnic groups. Stereotypes serve as a cognitive process for organizing social information in a complex social environment by facilitating information processing. Limited human cognitive ability influences the simple categorization process to operate and receive information. In fact, when one confirms stereotypes against a group it will lead to bias in thought as well as behaviour. Therefore, this paper scrutinizes in general about the belief on the ethnic social cultural that has been embedded in human mind. This research also reviews the stereotypical as a representation of the cognitive and reality of this complex social environment.

https://hrmars.com/papers_submitted/9020/images-in-the-human-mind-between-stereotype-and-reality-of-the-ethnic-groups-in-malaysia.pdf

Images in the Human Mind: Between Stereotype and Reality of the Ethnic Groups in Malaysia

United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) was created to give Indigenous peoples the right to determine their own educational system. In article 14 it is stated that, Indigenous peoples have the right to establish and control their educational systems and institutions, providing education in their own languages, in a manner appropriate to their cultural methods of teaching and learning. Since the 56 years of independence, Orang Asli has never been neglected or excluded from the government’s planning in ensuring their education development. Following Foucault’s analytical model, this paper discusses how knowledge that constitutes power highlights the way the governing systems work in Indigenous education policy. Furthermore, this paper also deliberates on participation by the Orang Asli and the power held by them to influence the creation of education policy through three main ideas; ‘governmentality’, ‘power/knowledge’ and ‘discourse’ which are analytical approaches by Foucault. Based on this discussion, we can get a clear picture and better understanding the possibility of improvements in Indigenous people’s educational opportunities and the possibility of a more all-inclusive education development policy.

Mohd Roslan Rosnon

Papers

Acculturation of consumerism among the Orang Asli community inJelebu, Negeri Sembilan

Indigenous education policy in Malaysia: a discussion of normalization in schooling

Indigenous Education Rights: The Malaysian Case

Images in the Human Mind: Between Stereotype and Reality of the Ethnic Groups in Malaysia

Discourse Of Indigenous Education Policy: The Malaysian Case