There is, I think, something ethereal about i —the square root of minus one. I remember first hearing about it at school. It seemed an odd beast at that time—an intruder hovering on the edge of reality.

Usually familiarity dulls this sense of the bizarre, but in the case of i it was the reverse: over the years the sense of its surreal nature intensified. It seemed that it was impossible to write mathematics that described the real world in …

I and i

To say that this is the best book on the quantum theory of fields is no praise, since to my knowledge it is the only book on this subject But it is a very good and most useful book The original was written in German and appeared in 1942 This is a translation with some minor changes A few remarks have been added, concerning meson theory and nuclear forces, also footnotes referring to modern work in this field, and finally an appendix on the symmetrization of the energy momentum tensor according to Belinfante Quantum Theory of Fields Prof Gregor Wentzel Translated from the German by Charlotte Houtermans and J M Jauch Pp ix + 224, (New York and London: Interscience Publishers, Inc, 1949) 36s

Quantum Theory of Fields

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Methods Of Modern Mathematical Physics

Tables of integrals

Quantum theory of open systems

In this paper we study the construction of probability densities for time of arrival in quantum mechanics. Our treatment is based upon the facts that (i) time appears in quantum theory as an external parameter to the system, and (ii) propositions about the time of arrival appear naturally when one considers histories. The definition of time-of-arrival probabilities is straightforward in stochastic processes. The difficulties that arise in quantum theory are due to the fact that the time parameter of the Schrodinger’s equation does not naturally define a probability density at the continuum limit, but also because the procedure one follows is sensitive on the interpretation of the reduction procedure. We consider the issue in Copenhagen quantum mechanics and in history-based schemes like consistent histories. The benefit of the latter is that it allows a proper passage to the continuous limit—there are, however, problems related to the quantum Zeno effect and decoherence. We finally employ the histories-based description to construct Positive-Operator-Valued-Measures (POVMs) for the time-of-arrival, which are valid for a general Hamiltonian. These POVMs typically depend on the resolution of the measurement device; for a free particle, however, this dependence cancels in the physically relevant regime and the POVM coincides with that of Kijowski.

Time-of-arrival probabilities and quantum measurements

We develop a general framework for the construction of probabilities for the time of arrival in quantum systems. The time of arrival is identified with the time instant when a transition in the detector's degrees of freedom takes place. Thus, its definition is embedded within the larger issue of defining probabilities with respect to time for general quantum transitions. The key point in our analysis is that we manage to reduce the problem of defining a quantum time observable to a mathematical model where time is associated to a transition from a subspace of the Hilbert space of the total system to its complementary subspace. This property makes it possible to derive a general expression for the probability for the time of transition, valid for any quantum system, with the only requirement that the time of transition is correlated with a definite macroscopic record. The framework developed here allows for the consideration of any experimental configuration for the measurement of the time of arrival, and it also applies to relativistic systems with interactions described by quantum field theory. We use the method in order to describe time-of-arrival measurements in high-energy particle reactions and for a rigorous derivation of the time-integrated probabilities in particle oscillations.

Time-of-arrival probabilities for general particle detectors

We show that the relativistic analog of the two types of time translation in a nonrelativistic history theory is the existence of two distinct Poincare groups. The “internal” Poincare group is analogous to the one that arises in the standard canonical quantization scheme; the “external” Poincare group is similar to the group that arises in a Lagrangian description of the standard theory. In particular, it performs explicit changes of the space–time foliation that is implicitly assumed in standard canonical field theory.

Poincaré invariance for continuous-time histories

In this paper we show in detail how the histories description of general relativity carries representations of both the spacetime diffeomorphism group and the Dirac algebra of constraints. We show that the introduction of metric-dependent equivariant foliations leads to the crucial result that the canonical constraints are invariant under the action of spacetime diffeomorphisms. Furthermore, there exists a representation of the group of generalized spacetime mappings that are functionals of the 4-metric: this is a spacetime analogue of the group originally defined by Bergmann and Komar in the context of the canonical formulation of general relativity. Finally, we discuss the possible directions for the quantization of gravity in histories theory.

http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0264-9381/21/2/021/pdf

Histories approach to general relativity: II. invariance groups

The problem of time in canonical quantum gravity is related to the fact that the canonical description is based on the prior choice of a spacelike foliation, hence making a reference to a spacetime metric. However, the metric is expected to be a dynamical, fluctuating quantity in quantum gravity. We show how this problem can be solved in the histories formulation of general relativity. We implement the 3+1 decomposition using metric-dependent foliations which remain spacelike with respect to all possible Lorentzian metrics. This allows us to find an explicit relation of covariant and canonical quantities which preserves the spacetime character of the canonical description. In this new construction, we also have a coexistence of the spacetime diffeomorphisms group, and the Dirac algebra of constraints.

Ntina Savvidou

Papers

Time-of-arrival probabilities and quantum measurements

Time-of-arrival probabilities for general particle detectors

Poincaré invariance for continuous-time histories

Histories approach to general relativity: II. invariance groups

General relativity histories theory I: The spacetime character of the canonical description