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Using Multivariate Statistics

The current evidence suggests that many diet and exercise interventions to prevent obesity in children are not effective in preventing weight gain, but can be effective in promoting a healthy diet and increased physical activity levels.Being very overweight (obese) can cause health, psychological and social problems for children. Children who are obese are more likely to have weight and health problems as adults. Programmes designed to prevent obesity focus on modifying one or more of the factors considered to promote obesity.This review included 22 studies that tested a variety of intervention programmes, which involved increased physical activity and dietary changes, singly or in combination. Participants were under 18 and living in Asia, South America, Europe or North America. There is not enough evidence from trials to prove that any one particular programme can prevent obesity in children, although comprehensive strategies to address dietary and physical activity change, together with psycho-social support and environmental change may help. There was a trend for newer interventions to involve their respective communities and to include evaluations.Future research might usefully assess changes made on behalf of entire populations, such as improvements in the types of foods available at schools and in the availability of safe places to run and play, and should assess health effects and costs over several years.The programmes in this review used different strategies to prevent obesity so direct comparisons were difficult. Also, the duration of the studies ranged from 12 weeks to three years, but most lasted less than a year.

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Interventions for preventing obesity in children

In this review, we consider the potential functional role of beta-band oscillations, which at present is not yet well understood. We discuss evidence from recent studies on top-down mechanisms involved in cognitive processing, on the motor system and on the pathophysiology of movement disorders that suggest a unifying hypothesis: beta-band activity seems related to the maintenance of the current sensorimotor or cognitive state. We hypothesize that beta oscillations and/or coupling in the beta-band are expressed more strongly if the maintenance of the status quo is intended or predicted, than if a change is expected. Moreover, we suggest that pathological enhancement of beta-band activity is likely to result in an abnormal persistence of the status quo and a deterioration of flexible behavioural and cognitive control.

Beta-band oscillations--signalling the status quo?

According to a recent theory, anterior cingulate cortex is sensitive to response conflict, the coactivation of mutually incompatible responses. The present research develops this theory to provide a new account of the error-related negativity (ERN), a scalp potential observed following errors. Connectionist simulations of response conflict in an attentional task demonstrated that the ERN--its timing and sensitivity to task parameters--can be explained in terms of the conflict theory. A new experiment confirmed predictions of this theory regarding the ERN and a second scalp potential, the N2, that is proposed to reflect conflict monitoring on correct response trials. Further analysis of the simulation data indicated that errors can be detected reliably on the basis of post-error conflict. It is concluded that the ERN can be explained in terms of response conflict and that monitoring for conflict may provide a simple mechanism for detecting errors.

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The neural basis of error detection: conflict monitoring and the error-related negativity.

The ability to regulate emotions is an important part of adaptive functioning in society. Advances in cognitive and affective neuroscience and biological psychiatry have facilitated examination of neural systems that may be important for emotion regulation. In this critical review we first develop a neural model of emotion regulation that includes neural systems implicated in different voluntary and automatic emotion regulatory subprocesses. We then use this model as a theoretical framework to examine functional neural abnormalities in these neural systems that may predispose to the development of a major psychiatric disorder characterized by severe emotion dysregulation, bipolar disorder.

A neural model of voluntary and automatic emotion regulation: implications for understanding the pathophysiology and neurodevelopment of bipolar disorder.

In a target discrimination task, trials with incorrect responses elicit event-related potentials (ERPs) that include an error-related negativity (ERN or Ne) and a later error-positivity (Pe). Substantial evidence points to the anterior cingulate cortex as the source generator of the ERN. We examined the development of ERP component morphology, amplitude and latency to processing of correct and incorrect responses in 124 children, 7 to 18 years of age, and 27 adults, 19 through 25 years of age. The ERN and Pe were recorded during a standard 480-trial visual flanker task. As expected, response times decreased significantly with age. The ERN amplitude in error trials increased with age, although this was qualified by a nonlinear change as well. The Pe amplitude did not change with age. In correct trials, most participants produced a small negativity corresponding to the timing of the ERN in error trials. This correct-response negativity (CRN) amplitude was larger in children than in adults. Results are discussed with respect to continued maturation of the anterior cingulate cortex and prefrontal cortex into young adulthood.

Development of response-monitoring ERPs in 7- to 25-year-olds.

Charting the maturation of the frontal lobe: An electrophysiological strategy

Error trials are associated with faster responses than correct trials in simple discrimination tasks suggesting that errors result from impulsive responding. We investigated the relationship between error negativity (Ne/ERN), an event-related potential associated with error detection, and two behavioral indices of response control: response time (RT) differences between incorrect and correct trials (an index of impulsivity) and percentage of errors. Response-locked ERPs were collected from 17 young adults during a visual flanker task. Consistent with previous findings, participants were significantly faster on error trials. However, participants who exhibited larger Ne/ERN peak amplitudes had significantly smaller RT differences, suggesting a more controlled response strategy. Furthermore, Ne/ERN latencies were positively associated with percentage of errors. These findings are consistent with the view that the Ne/ERN reflects the activity of a monitoring system that is closely linked to remedial systems responsible for individual differences in response control or impulsive behavior.

Error negativity and response control

OBJECTIVES. The level of children's motor skill proficiency may be an important determinant of their physical activity behaviors. This study assessed the efficacy of an intervention on gross motor skill performance, physical activity, and weight status of preschoolers. METHOD. The Food Friends: Get Movin' With Mighty Moves(®) program was conducted in four Head Start centers. Measurements included the Peabody Developmental Motor Scales, pedometer counts, and body mass index (BMI) z scores. RESULTS. The intervention led to significant changes in gross motor skills in the treatment group (n = 98) compared with the control group (n = 103) and was a strong predictor of overall gross motor performance (gross motor quotient), locomotor, stability, and object manipulation skills. No intervention effect was found for physical activity levels or weight status. CONCLUSION. The intervention dose was adequate for enhancing gross motor skill performance but not for increasing physical activity levels or reducing BMI. Language: en

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Effectiveness of a physical activity intervention for Head Start preschoolers: a randomized intervention study.

The anecdotal benefits of implementing Universal Design for Learning (UDL) at postsecondary institutions are well documented. The literature suggests that UDL offers students with disabilities enhanced opportunities for engagement, expression, and academic performance. Responding to the call by educators for empirical evidence of UDL’s beneficial effects on student learning, performance, persistence, and ultimately retention, this study measured changes and /or improvements in instruction as perceived by students following UDL instructor training and subsequent course delivery modifications. This study also describes the process that was undertaken to develop and implement preand post-student surveys, and points the way toward further research regarding the benefits of UDL implementation to postsecondary education. The number of students with disabilities is growing on college campuses across the nation. In the two decades between 1978 and 1998, the percentage of college freshman with a disability tripled (from 3% to 9%), according to the National Council on Disability (2003). Today an estimated 11% of undergraduates—more than two million—report having some type of disability (National Center for Education Statistics, 2008b; U.S. Government Accountability Office, 2009). While the number of college students with disabilities has grown, the distribution of disability types has changed. Indeed, the proportions of non-apparent and apparent disabilities have reversed, with significant growth occurring in the former category and decline in the latter. For example, the percentage of undergraduates who reported having a mental, emotional, or psychiatric condition/depression increased from 17.1% in 2000 to 24.3% in 2008, while the percentage of students who reported an orthopedic or mobility impairment decreased from 29% to 15.1% during the same period. Non-apparent disability categories such as attention deficit disorder (ADD) and specific learning disabilities/dyslexia also represented a higher percentage of the total population of students with disabilities (U.S. Government Accountability Office, 2009). Adding to the population of students with disabilities are veterans who have sustained injuries in Iraq and Afghanistan, many of whom experience what the RAND Corporation calls the “invisible wounds of war” (Tanielian, et al., 2008). It has been estimated that 20% of returning veterans suffer from post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or major depression, while 19% have experienced a traumatic brain injury (TBI) (Tanielian, et al., 2008). Many of these men and women will soon be enrolling in postsecondary education under the new GI Bill. (American Council on Education, 2008; Stiglitz & Bilmes, 2008). Seen through the lens of enrollment, colleges and universities have come a long way toward meeting the equal access requirements of the law (in particular, the ADA Amendments Act of 2008 (ADAAA) and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973). However, when we look at the number of students with disabilities who actually complete their degree programs, the picture is less encouraging. According to deFur, Getzel, & Trossi (1996), “the likelihood of earning a degree is decreased by the presence of a disability” (p. 232). This was confirmed by Johnson and Fox (2003), who reviewed data from the 1997 National Longitudinal Study and concluded that “students with disabilities are less likely than their non-disabled peers to complete their education” (p. 7). In fact, only 6% of Americans with disabilities ages 21–64 have attained a bachelors degree (National Council on Disability, 2008), and, Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability, 24(1) 18 according to an earlier study, those who did complete their degree programs took twice as long to do so as their fellow students without disabilities (National Council on Disability, 2003). Completing a college degree is a challenge for many students, not just those with disabilities, and nearly all two and four year institutions of higher education struggle with issues of persistence, retention, and degree attainment (Murphy, 2006; National Center for Public Policy and Higher Education, 2008). One of the often-cited explanations for this problem is the growing diversity of students on college campuses. As has been shown by numerous studies, students today embody a wide range of diversity in terms of age, life experiences, academic preparation, ethnicity, native language, learning styles, abilities, and disabilities (Chronicle of Higher Education, 2009; Higher Education Research Institute, 2007, 2008; McGuire & Scott, 2006; National Center for Education Statistics, 2008a; Zeff, 2007). To help improve rates of persistence, retention, and attainment for such a diverse student body, several instructional models have been proposed that build on a set of principles called Universal Design (UD) (Burgstahler, 2008). According to the Center for Universal Design (2009) at North Carolina State University, “Universal design is the design of products and environments to be usable by all people, to the greatest extent possible, without the need for adaptation or specialized design.” Universal Design is an expression of a modern view of disability—one that focuses on the interaction of an individual with his or her environment (Aune, 2000; Rose, Harbour, Johnston, Daley, & Abarbanell, 2008). Problems of access, according to this view, can often be avoided by eliminating environmental barriers that potentially affect a wide range of people. Manually operated doors, sidewalks, stairs and standing-height drinking fountains, for example, are all potential barriers to someone using a wheelchair, but they also make life difficult for anyone who is carrying a heavy load, using crutches after an accident, or who simply isn’t tall enough to reach a drinking fountain. The “universally designed” solutions to these barriers—automatic doors, curb cuts, ramps, elevators and accessible drinking fountains—can be used and enjoyed by everyone. One of the hallmarks of Universal Design is that it “proactively builds in features to accommodate the range of human diversity” (McGuire, Scott, & Shaw, 2006, p. 173). Not surprisingly, educators have adopted UD as a conceptual and philosophical foundation on which to build a model of teaching and learning that is inclusive, equitable, and guides the creation of accessible course materials. Several models appear in the literature, including Universal Design of Instruction, based on UD’s seven original principles, and Universal Design for Instruction, based also on the seven principles but with two additional principles added to specifically address issues of teaching and learning (Burgstahler, 2008). Another UD model for education is Universal Design for Learning (UDL), which retains UD’s spirit of inclusion while reducing the number of principles to just three. Universal Design for Learning has three principles, which are tailored to the instructional environment, are based on cognitive research involving “learning networks.” These principles are: 1) multiple means of representation, to give learners various ways of acquiring information and knowledge; 2) multiple means of student action and expression, to provide learners alternatives for demonstrating what they know; and 3) multiple means of student engagement, to tap into learners’ interests, challenge them appropriately, and motivate them to learn (Center for Applied Special Technology, 2009). The ACCESS Project at Colorado State University has adopted this three-part UDL framework to guide its primary mission: ensuring that students with disabilities receive a quality higher education. While never losing sight of the needs of students with disabilities, the Project has broadened its focus to include improved learning opportunities for all students (ACCESS Project, 2007). Universal Design for Learning is promoted as a model for good teaching generally, and as such it is becoming an important part of a broader conversation about pedagogy. Through a partnership with the university’s Institute for Learning and Teaching, UDL is being addressed in “Master Teacher Seminars” and “Teaching with Technology Workshops” that reach hundreds of faculty and graduate teaching assistants every semester. The literature about UD in higher education is long on principles and “best practices,” but short on empirical evidence of its benefits. In response to the call for more research by scholars in this field (Burgstahler, 2008; McGuire, et al., 2006; Rose, et al., 2008, p. 138; Spooner, Baker, Harris, Delzell, & Browder, 2007), the ACCESS Project put in place a research agenda to examine the effectiveness of providing training to faculty on the principles and practices of UDL. After Schelly, Davies, & Spooner; Student Perceptions 19 reviewing the literature for guidance on possible research designs, it was determined that a study at the University of Guelph in Ontario, Canada, provided a model of how such research might be conducted (Yuval, Procter, Korabik, & Palmer, 2004). Yuval and colleagues describe their efforts to measure the “extent of UID [Universal Instructional Design] implementation, and to assess whether student academic self-efficacy and affective states improved as a result of UID implementation” (Yuval, et al., 2004, p. 1). Similar to our colleagues at Guelph, the ACCESS team wanted to measure student perceptions following UD training. However, unlike the Guelph study, our research would focus on changes in the teaching behavior of instructors following UDL training. To accomplish this, a new questionnaire was developed based on the three principles of UDL (as opposed to the seven principles of UID). UDL training was also designed around the same three principles. It was decided that a questionnaire should be administered to students both before and after UDL training. Results from the first survey would be used to gui

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Patricia L. Davies

Papers

Development of response-monitoring ERPs in 7- to 25-year-olds.

Charting the maturation of the frontal lobe: An electrophysiological strategy

Error negativity and response control

Effectiveness of a physical activity intervention for Head Start preschoolers: a randomized intervention study.

Student Perceptions of Faculty Implementation of Universal Design for Learning.