Recent successes illustrate the role of mass spectrometry-based proteomics as an indispensable tool for molecular and cellular biology and for the emerging field of systems biology. These include the study of protein-protein interactions via affinity-based isolations on a small and proteome-wide scale, the mapping of numerous organelles, the concurrent description of the malaria parasite genome and proteome, and the generation of quantitative protein profiles from diverse species. The ability of mass spectrometry to identify and, increasingly, to precisely quantify thousands of proteins from complex samples can be expected to impact broadly on biology and medicine.

Mass spectrometry-based proteomics

Recent advances in proteomics technologies such as two-hybrid, phage display and mass spectrometry have enabled us to create a detailed map of biomolecular interaction networks. Initial mapping efforts have already produced a wealth of data. As the size of the interaction set increases, databases and computational methods will be required to store, visualize and analyze the information in order to effectively aid in knowledge discovery. This paper describes a novel graph theoretic clustering algorithm, "Molecular Complex Detection" (MCODE), that detects densely connected regions in large protein-protein interaction networks that may represent molecular complexes. The method is based on vertex weighting by local neighborhood density and outward traversal from a locally dense seed protein to isolate the dense regions according to given parameters. The algorithm has the advantage over other graph clustering methods of having a directed mode that allows fine-tuning of clusters of interest without considering the rest of the network and allows examination of cluster interconnectivity, which is relevant for protein networks. Protein interaction and complex information from the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae was used for evaluation. Dense regions of protein interaction networks can be found, based solely on connectivity data, many of which correspond to known protein complexes. The algorithm is not affected by a known high rate of false positives in data from high-throughput interaction techniques. The program is available from ftp://ftp.mshri.on.ca/pub/BIND/Tools/MCODE
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An automated method for finding molecular complexes in large protein interaction networks.

We are in the midst of a technological revolution whereby, for the first time, researchers can link daily word use to a broad array of real-world behaviors. This article reviews several computerized text analysis methods and describes how Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC) was created and validated. LIWC is a transparent text analysis program that counts words in psychologically meaningful categories. Empirical results using LIWC demonstrate its ability to detect meaning in a wide variety of experimental settings, including to show attentional focus, emotionality, social relationships, thinking styles, and individual differences.

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The psychological meaning of words: LIWC and computerized text analysis methods

A fundamental goal of cell biology is to define the functions of proteins in the context of compartments that organize them in the cellular environment. Here we describe the construction and analysis of a collection of yeast strains expressing full-length, chromosomally tagged green fluorescent protein fusion proteins. We classify these proteins, representing 75% of the yeast proteome, into 22 distinct subcellular localization categories, and provide localization information for 70% of previously unlocalized proteins. Analysis of this high-resolution, high-coverage localization data set in the context of transcriptional, genetic, and protein-protein interaction data helps reveal the logic of transcriptional co-regulation, and provides a comprehensive view of interactions within and between organelles in eukaryotic cells.

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Global analysis of protein localization in budding yeast

Given the functional interdependencies between the molecular components in a human cell, a disease is rarely a consequence of an abnormality in a single gene, but reflects the perturbations of the complex intracellular and intercellular network that links tissue and organ systems. The emerging tools of network medicine offer a platform to explore systematically not only the molecular complexity of a particular disease, leading to the identification of disease modules and pathways, but also the molecular relationships among apparently distinct (patho)phenotypes. Advances in this direction are essential for identifying new disease genes, for uncovering the biological significance of disease-associated mutations identified by genome-wide association studies and full-genome sequencing, and for identifying drug targets and biomarkers for complex diseases.

Network Medicine: A Network-Based Approach to Human Disease

Geographic profiling (GP) is an investigative technique that involves predicting a serial offender’s home location (or some other anchor point) based on where he or she committed a crime. Although the use of GP in police investigations appears to be on the rise, little is known about the procedure and how it is used. To examine these issues, a survey was distributed internationally to police professionals who have contributed GP advice to police investigations. The survey consisted of questions designed to assess: (a) how geographic profiles are constructed, (b) the perceived usefulness and accuracy of GP, (c) whether core GP conditions are examined before profiles are constructed, and (d) the types of cases in which GP is used. The results suggest that geographic profiles are commonly used in operational settings for a wide range of crime types. This appears to be true even when GP conditions are violated. In addition, general perceptions of GP accuracy and usefulness appear to be high, but this is particularly true for respondents who use computerized GP systems (compared with spatial distribution strategies, such as centroids, or educated guesses). Computerized GP systems are also the most commonly used GP approach among our respondents, especially for those who have received formal training in GP. Although preliminary in nature, the results from this study help enhance understanding of how GP is used in police investigations around the world, and under what conditions. The survey also provides directions for future research.

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Geographic profiling survey: A preliminary examination of geographic profilers’ views and experiences

This study compared the precision, accuracy, and efficiency of geographic profiles made by students to those made by mathematical algorithms. After making predictions on 20 maps, each depicting a different offense series, nearly half of the sampled students were instructed that "the majority of offenders commit offenses close to home". All of the students were then asked to make predictions on a different set of 20 maps. Seven different mathematical algorithms, several derived from a new Bayesian journey-to-crime estimation method, were also applied to the 40 maps. Results showed that informing students about the "distance decay heuristic" increased the precision of their predictions, but these predictions were not as accurate or efficient as those made by most of the algorithmic procedures. Implications of these results for the field of geographic profiling are discussed.

The precision, accuracy and efficiency of geographic profiling predictions:a simple heuristic versus mathematical algorithms

Influence tactics are tangible messages that may be used to influence the way in which a crisis negotiation unfolds over time. We begin this chapter by placing influence tactics and their use in the broader context of negotiation research and practice. Drawing on contemporary research, we then unpack the role of influence by introducing the Table of Ten, a theoretical classification of influence tactics that distinguishes between relational and content orientated messages. We show how this collection of message tactics may be used to shape a developing negotiation, and consider how research into the Table of Ten has provided insights into the dynamics of interaction across cultures, time periods, and types of crises. We conclude with discussing the use of the Table of Ten in practice. Communication Predictors and Social Influence in Crisis Negotiations An observation often made by police officers during their crisis negotiation training is that experienced negotiators have a natural style of interacting that is engaging, reassuring, and difficult to respond to with anger or violence. To the novice, these negotiators are talented in their ability to build rapport, create an atmosphere conducive to cooperation, and present unwelcome messages in a way that minimizes their negative connotations. In part, these abilities are the result of the experienced negotiator’s use of techniques such as active 1 Authors’ Note: This work was supported by a British Council—NWO Partnership Programme in Science grant (No. PS844), awarded to both authors. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed either to: Ellen Giebels, University of Twente, Faculty of Behavioral Sciences, Organizational Psychology and HRD, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands. E-mail: e.giebels@utwente.nl; or Paul J. Taylor, Department of Psychology, Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK. LA1 4YF. E-mail: p.j.taylor@lancaster.ac.uk. 2 Giebels and Taylor listening skills (Rogan, Donohue, & Lyles, 1990; Taylor & Donohue, 2006) and conceptual models such as those that encourage a negotiator to consider emotional, relational, and substantive aspects of the negotiation (Rogan & Hammer, 2002; Taylor, 2002a). However, they are also the result of the negotiator’s knowledge about how to present messages in a way that appeals to, and persuades the perpetrator. For example, a police negotiator’s suggestion to release an elderly hostage is often more effective when it is preceded by conversation about the perpetrators considerate nature and wish not to harm the hostages. Experienced negotiators have learned that messages presented using known persuasive devices—particular phrases or sequences of arguments—can make them more conducive to compliance or cooperation than would otherwise be the case. The use of persuasive messages, known in the negotiation literature as influence tactics, is the focus of this chapter. We define the use of influence tactics as deliberate actions by one individual (e.g., police negotiator) directed at another individual (e.g., perpetrator) that seek to alter the attitudes and/or behaviors of the target in a way that would not have otherwise occurred (cf. Gass & Seiter, 1999). We begin the chapter by mapping out the important role of influence tactics in contemporary crisis negotiation research and practice. We then present a theoretically-derived set of ten influence tactics and discuss how and when these tactics can influence the progress of negotiation. We end by outlining how the effectiveness of influence tactics can differ across cultures and negotiation contexts, and provide some guidelines for negotiators wishing to identify when their messages are having an influence. Understanding Negotiation In reflecting on what we know about negotiation, it can be useful to divide our understanding into two levels. One level of understanding is focused on the interpersonal factors that fuel crisis negotiation and how changes in these factors allow an interaction to Influence Tactics and Communication Patterns 3 begin, unfold and resolve. The need to develop affiliation, reduce crisis intensity, and respond to the perpetrator’s “face” issues, are among the factors that have been shown to play a role in the progress of negotiation (Donohue & Roberto, 1993; Giebels & Noelanders, 2004; Rogan & Hammer, 1994; Taylor, 2002a) and its success (Taylor, 2002b). These factors provide a framework from which a negotiator can begin to understand the issues that drive a crisis negotiation as a whole. By considering these factors, a negotiator is able to construct informed answers to questions such as “what is it I am trying to achieve?”, “what factors are making this individual behave this way?”, and “how should I approach this interaction to gain trust?” This type of understanding is thus orientated towards enhancing strategic decisions. The second level of understanding centers on the cues and responses that underlie and give rise to the patterns found at the strategic level (Giebels & Noelanders, 2004; Taylor & Donald, 2003; Weingart, Prietula, Hyder, & Genovese, 1999). The focus here is toward the interconnections among messages, the responses typically elicited by certain cues, and the way in which these cue-response sequences build to move a negotiation down a particular path. For example, messages that draw on rational persuasion and logic are often effective when presented to a Dutch perpetrator, but they can have a very different effect when presented to a perpetrator who was brought up in a collectivist culture such as China. Understanding such cue-response patterns may be thought of as bottom-up or focused on the building blocks of negotiation. An understanding at this level allows negotiators to respond to messages in ways that have been found to increase persuasion, and as such this knowledge may be seen as orientated toward tactical decisions about how to achieve strategic objectives. The topic of influence tactics fits principally in the second level of understanding. For example, negotiators who want to address the issue of hostage safety may try to elicit a desired response by promising something in return, by referring to their loved ones and their 4 Giebels and Taylor distress, or by warning them of the consequences of not treating the hostage well. These three messages incorporate different types of influence, but each is aimed at achieving the higher level strategic goal of obtaining information and placing the focus of interaction onto the hostages. Thus, strategic goals may be translated into different influence tactics at a micro level. Tactics are message tools that can be applied at particular times to achieve higher level (sub-) goals of negotiation. Messages with Influence A first step in understanding how messages may be designed to influence a perpetrator is to understand the different forms of influence that are available. In the existing literature, three lines of research stand out as relevant to a categorization of influence. The most significant work has been done by experimental social psychologist Robert Cialdini (for a recent discussion, see Cialdini, 2001). Cialdini identifies a number of tactics based on six psychological mechanisms, each of which has been verified through controlled experimental studies. For example, Cialdini showed that people are more likely to take a particular course of action when they believe that others are doing, or would do, the same thing, something he referred to as the principle of social proof. A second area of work stems from communication theory, where researchers have considered influence at the dyadic level, often under the term “compliance-gaining”. For example, in their review of compliance-gaining research, Kellerman and Cole (1994) show that demonstrating some authority on a subject is a good way of encouraging an individual to take your word for it. Finally, organizational psychologists have conducted some research into the effectiveness of different influence tactics on workforce behavior. For example, Higgins, Judge, and Ferris (2003) focus on the relative occurrence and effectiveness of different managerial influence styles in work situations. They find that one effective methods of influencing others to work is for the Influence Tactics and Communication Patterns 5 manager to rationalize or rationally persuade the other as to why a particular piece of work is worthwhile. The Table of Ten The three fields of research described above propose a range of different influence tactics. Some distinguish as few as 6 types of influence, while others distinguish as many as 20 different tactics. Some of these tactics, such as rational persuasion, exerting pressure, and legitimizing, have clear exemplar in the dialogue of crisis negotiations. Others, such as consulting or inspiring, are arguably less applicable to the crisis negotiation context. To determine which influence tactics are most applicable, the first author recently conducted a series of studies involving both interviews with Dutch and Belgian police negotiators and observations of their negotiation behavior in practice (see Giebels & Noelanders, 2004, for details). These analyses suggest that a set of ten categories of influence behavior are most applicable to crisis negotiation. These tactics, known as the “Table of Ten” (Giebels, 2002), are outlined in this section. Table 1 summarizes the ten influence tactics together with the principles of influence on which they are based. To unpack the tactics presented in Table 1, it is useful to distinguish between tactics that are primarily connected with the sender and his or her relationship with the other party (relational tactics), and tactics that are primarily connected with the content of the message and the information conveyed to the other party (content tactics). Importantly, this distinction brings to light a fundamental tension that exists in crisis nego

Communication predictors and social influence in crisis negotiations

Death in Camp Delta

Objective: Violence perpetrated by groups has been proposed to result from processes that include deindividuation, instrumental responses to victim resistance, and leader-follower dynamics. Here we compare the explanatory merit of these accounts by analyzing the sequential patterns of behaviors that occurred in 71 accounts of multiple perpetrator rape by 189 suspects against lone females. Method: Victim accounts of the offenses made to the police were coded for leader, follower, and victim actions using the interpersonal circumplex quadrants, and the offenses were rated as involving high or low nonsexual aggression. Results: Analysis of the temporal proximities among victim and suspect behaviors found that (a) in contrast to deindividuation, hostility decreased rather than increased with group size, (b) victim behavior had no significant effect on perpetrator violence, and (c) leader behavior had a significant effect on group violence. Conclusions: Compared with low aggression offenses, high aggression offenses were characterized by the leaders' hostile behaviors reinforcing the hostile behavior of followers, as well as there being some mutual reinforcement from follower(s) to leader. This has implications for theories of (sexual) violence perpetrated by multiple individuals, as well as for clinical work with such offenders. For example, the influence of peers in these offenses has implications for the planning of interventions with such offenders and the sorts of intervention that are likely to be successful.

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Paul J. Taylor

Papers

Geographic profiling survey: A preliminary examination of geographic profilers’ views and experiences

The precision, accuracy and efficiency of geographic profiling predictions:a simple heuristic versus mathematical algorithms

Communication predictors and social influence in crisis negotiations

Death in Camp Delta

Multiple perpetrator rape: is perpetrator violence the result of victim resistance, deindividuation, or leader-follower dynamics?