This book describes the present state of knowledge regarding the impact of cyanobacteria on health through the use of water. It considers aspects of risk management and details the information needed for protecting drinking water sources and recreational water bodies from the health hazards caused by cyanobacteria and their toxins. It also outlines the state of knowledge regarding the principal considerations in the design of programmes and studies for monitoring water resources and supplies and describes the approaches and procedures used.
The development of this publication was guided by the recommendations of several expert meetings concerning drinking water (Geneva, December 1995; Bad Elster, June
1996) and recreational water (Bad Elster, June 1996; St Helier, May 1997). An expert meeting in Bad Elster, April 1997, critically reviewed the literature concerning the toxicity of cyanotoxins and developed the scope and content of this book. A draft manuscript was reviewed at an editorial meeting in November 1997, and a further draft was
reviewed by the working group responsible for updating the Guidelines for Drinkingwater Quality in March 1998.

/pdf/toxic-cyanobacteria-in-water-a-guide-to-their-public-health-2y64v55hv1.pdf

Toxic cyanobacteria in water: a guide to their public health consequences, monitoring and management.

Cyanobacteria secondary metabolites--the cyanotoxins.

(2002). The Effects of Harmful Algal Blooms on Aquatic Organisms. Reviews in Fisheries Science: Vol. 10, No. 2, pp. 113-390.

The Effects of Harmful Algal Blooms on Aquatic Organisms

/pdf/the-structuring-role-of-submerged-macrophytes-in-lakes-4owvccrh21.pdf

The Structuring Role of Submerged Macrophytes in Lakes

Multiple interacting physical, chemical, and biotic factors, in proper combination, lead to the development and persistence of nuisance algal blooms. Upon examining combinations of environmental conditions most likely to elicit nuisance blooms, commonalities and analog situations become more apparent among coastal marine (dinoflagellate-dominated), estuarine (dinoflagellate- and cyanobacteria-dominated), and freshwater (cyanobacteria-dominated) ecosystems. A combination of the following hydrological, chemical, and biotic factors will most likely lead to bloom-sensitive waters: a horizontally distinct water mass; a vertically stratified water column; warm weather conditions, as typified by dry monsoon tropical climates and summer seasons in temperate zones; high incident photosynthetically active radiation (PAR); enhanced allochthonous organic matter loading (both as DOC and POC); enhanced allochthonous inorganic nutrient loading (nitrogen and/or phosphorus); adequate availability of essential metals, supplied by terrigenous inputs or upwelling; underlying sediments physically and nutritionally suitable as “seed beds” for resting cysts and akinetes; algal-bacterial synergism, which exhibits positive impacts on phycosphere nutrient cycling; algal-micrograzer (protists and rotifers) synergism, which also enhances nutrient cycling without consumption of filamentous and colonial nuisance taxa; and selective (for non-nuisance taxa) activities of macrograzers (crustacean zooplankton, larval fish).

Nuisance bloom taxa share numerous additional physiological and ecological characteristics, including limited heterotrophic capabilities, high degrees of motility, and toxicity. Given such a set of commonalities, it would appear useful and timely to identify and address generally applicable criteria for deeming a water body “bloom sensitive” and to incorporate such criteria into the design of water quality management strategies applicable to both coastal marine and freshwater habitats.

https://aslopubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.4319/lo.1988.33.4part2.0823

Nuisance phytoplankton blooms in coastal, estuarine, and inland waters1

Naming of cyclic heptapeptide toxins of cyanobacteria (blue-green-algae)

Calves, rats, ducks, and goldfish given lethal oral doses of bacteria-free lyophilized cell suspensions of toxic Anabaena flos-aquae died as a result of respiratory arrest. Experiments with selected animals and pharmacological preparations showed that the main effect of the toxin was production of a sustained postsynaptic depolarizing neuromuscular blockade.

https://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/187/4176/542.full.pdf

Toxicology and Pharmacological Action of Anabaena flos-aquae Toxin

SUMMARY
Axenic clones from 5 isolates of Anabaena flosaquae, 1 isolate of Microcystis acruginosa, and 1 isolate of Aphanizomenon flos-aquae were obtained by a combination of steps that provided a 1000-fold reduction in the bacteria-algae ratio and permitted bacteria-free filaments or cells to be isolated and grown from agar pour plates. The first step consisted of the addition of phenol to a dark-treated culture to selectively reduce the numbers of actively growing bacteria while leaving the resting algal cells viable. The next steps involved washing the treated algal suspension on a Millipore filter pad or membrane followed by plating in washed agar containing buffered mineral medium plus vitamins and soil extract. The final steps consisted of incubating the agar pour plates, coring bacteria-free filaments or cells, culturing the agar cores in a buffered mineral medium, and rigorously testing the resulting cultures for bacteriological contamination. Between 50 and 90% of the cores grew, and of these about 50% were judged axenic. The method, with appropriate adaptations, should be suitable for obtaining axenic clones of other freshwater and marine algae.

An improved method for obtaining axenic clones of planktonic blue‐green algae1,2

(1978). Anatoxins from clones of Anabaena flos-aquae isolated from lakes of western Canada. SIL Communications, 1953-1996: Vol. 21, No. 1, pp. 285-295.

Anatoxins from clones of Anabaena flos-aquae isolated from lakes of western Canada: With 3 figures and 2 tables in the text

The incidence of toxic populations of planktonic Cyanobacteria in hypertrophic Hastings Lake, Alberta (located 40 km east of Edmonton) was monitored during July and August of 1975, 1976 and 1977. Samples were collected at intervals from different stations, concentrated from 1 to 20 (exceptionally to 200 or 400) times with a plankton net, as required, and tested for toxicity by 1.0 ml intraperitoneal injection into 20 g mice. Species composition was determined microscopically and biomass densities were determined from dry weights. Strains of two of the three predominant species, Microcystis aeruginosa Kutz. emend. Elenkin and Anabaena flos-aquae (Lyngb.) de Breb. were isolated, cultured and tested for toxicity. Based on signs of poisoning produced in mice and chicks by populations and isolates, Microcystis aeruginosa type-c toxin was found to be primarily responsible for the toxicity observed at different stations during all three seasons. Only one collection (June 27, 1976, concentrated 200 times) indicated the presence of anatoxin-b. On a single day, as well as on different days, population density, species composition and toxicity varied greatly from station to station. On some days, big differences occurred between stations that were only 10 m apart. In July, 1975, localized pulses of type-c toxin were detected for a few days which ranged in titer from 0.4 to 1.4 times the lethal oral dose of anatoxin-a for a 60 kg calf (estimated as 16,000 mouse units (MU) per 10 liters, equivalent to 0.5 ml (i. p.) per 20 g mouse of the most dense population composed entirely of type-a). In 1976, one, and in 1977, two localized pulses of type-c toxin of much lower titer were detected. The use of toxicity as a marker has revealed that blooms of Cyanobacteria tend to have a dynamic and mosaic structure. Remarkably localized differences in strain as well as species composition can occur in response to morphometry and to prevailing nutritional and other environmental factors that affect growth, buoyancy, accumulation and dispersal. The dynamic and mosaic nature of blooms contributes to the unpredictable occurrence of lethal doses of cyanotoxins that may be ingested by livestock and wildlife. Other contributing factors are differences in type, productions, accumulation, release and inactivation of toxins and in animal susceptibility.

Paul R. Gorham

Papers

Naming of cyclic heptapeptide toxins of cyanobacteria (blue-green-algae)

Toxicology and Pharmacological Action of Anabaena flos-aquae Toxin

An improved method for obtaining axenic clones of planktonic blue‐green algae1,2

Anatoxins from clones of Anabaena flos-aquae isolated from lakes of western Canada: With 3 figures and 2 tables in the text

The Mosaic Nature of Toxic Blooms of Cyanobacteria