Qualitative Interviewing: The Art of Hearing Data

Depression and anxiety are the most common psychiatric conditions in late life. Despite their prevalence, we know relatively little about their unique manifestation in older adults. And, Although the most common intervention for late-life depression and anxiety continues to be medication, research on psychosocial interventions for late-life depression and anxiety has burgeoned in the past several years. Unfortunately, this growing body of intervention research has yet to be widely translated into improved systems of care for late-life depression. This article is one step toward synthesizing the knowledge in this growing area of research. The review of literature presents the conclusions of several meta-analyses that have reviewed psychosocial interventions for late-life depression and anxiety. In addition, intervention studies concerning the effectiveness of cognitive behavioral therapy, interpersonal therapy, reminiscence therapy, and alternative therapies with depressed and/or anxious older adults are reviewed. A brief description of various approaches to psychosocial intervention with anxious and/or depressed older adults is also presented.

Depression and anxiety.

Background. Inclusive education/mainstreaming is a key policy objective for the education of children and young people with special educational needs (SEN) and disabilities.
 
Aims. This paper reviews the literature on the effectiveness of inclusive education/mainstreaming. The focus is on evidence for effects in terms of child outcomes with examination also of evidence on processes that support effectiveness.
 
Samples. The review covers a range of SEN and children from pre-school to the end of compulsory education.
 
Method. Following an historical review of evidence on inclusive education/mainstreaming, the core of the paper is a detailed examination of all the papers published in eight journals from the field of special education published 2001-2005 (N = 1373): journal of Special Education, Exceptional Children, Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, journal of Learning Disabilities, Remedial and Special Education, British journal of Special Education, European journal of Special Needs Education, and the International journal of Inclusive Education. The derived categories were: comparative studies of outcomes: other outcome studies; non-comparative qualitative studies including non-experimental case studies; teacher practice and development; teacher attitudes; and the use of teaching assistants.
 
Results. Only 14 papers (1.0%) were identified as comparative outcome studies of children with some form of SEN. Measures used varied but included social as well as educational outcomes. Other papers included qualitative studies of inclusive practice, some of which used a non-comparative case study design while others were based on respondent's judgements, or explored process factors including teacher attitudes and the use of teaching assistants.
 
Conclusions. Inclusive education/mainstreaming has been promoted on two bases: the rights of children to be included in mainstream education and the proposition that inclusive education is more effective. This review focuses on the latter issue. The evidence from this review does not provide a clear endorsement for the positive effects of inclusion. There is a lack of evidence from appropriate studies and, where evidence does exist, the balance was only marginally positive. It is argued that the policy has been driven by a concern for children's rights. The important task now is to research more thoroughly the mediators and moderators that support the optimal education for children with SEN and disabilities and, as a consequence, develop an evidence-based approach to these children's education.

Educational psychology and the effectiveness of inclusive education/mainstreaming.

Facilitating the learning and participation of pupils with Asperger syndrome and high-functioning autism (herein referred to as AS) in mainstream schools is complex and poorly understood. We report on a small-scale qualitative study of the views and experiences of 20 such pupils drawn from four secondary schools in north-west England. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews and pupil diaries. Interpretive phenomenological analysis was used to explore how pupils with AS make sense of their educational experiences. The central theme was how participants constructed their understanding of what their AS meant to them. This was often characterized by negative perceptions of their differences, such as being 'retarded' or having a 'bad brain'. The links between this understanding and reported difficulties with peers and teachers, the desire to 'fit in', and other themes are discussed. The implications of these findings for policy and practice in this area are also presented.

`Make me normal' The views and experiences of pupils on the autistic spectrum in mainstream secondary schools

Scoping studies have been used across a range of disciplines for a wide variety of purposes. However, their value is increasingly limited by a lack of definition and clarity of purpose. The UK's Service Delivery and Organisation Research Programme (SDO) has extensive experience of commissioning and using such studies; twenty four have now been completed. This review article has four objectives; to describe the nature of the scoping studies that have been commissioned by the SDO Programme; to consider the impact of and uses made of such studies; to provide definitions for the different elements that may constitute a scoping study; and to describe the lessons learnt by the SDO Programme in commissioning scoping studies. Scoping studies are imprecisely defined but usually consist of one or more discrete components; most commonly they are non-systematic reviews of the literature, but other important elements are literature mapping, conceptual mapping and policy mapping. Some scoping studies also involve consultations with stakeholders including the end users of research. Scoping studies have been used for a wide variety of purposes, although a common feature is to identify questions and topics for future research. The reports of scoping studies often have an impact that extends beyond informing research commissioners about future research areas; some have been published in peer reviewed journals, and others have been published in research summaries aimed at a broader audience of health service managers and policymakers. Key lessons from the SDO experience are the need to relate scoping studies to a particular health service context; the need for scoping teams to be multi-disciplinary and to be given enough time to integrate diverse findings; and the need for the research commissioners to be explicit not only about the aims of scoping studies but also about their intended uses. This necessitates regular contact between researchers and commissioners. Scoping studies are an essential element in the portfolio of approaches to research, particularly as a mechanism for helping research commissioners and policy makers to ask the right questions. Their utility will be further enhanced by greater recognition of the individual components, definitions for which are provided.

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Asking the right questions: Scoping studies in the commissioning of research on the organisation and delivery of health services

*Contributors are listed alphabetically The views expressed in this report are the author's and do not necessarily reflect those of the Department for Education and Skills. Acknowledgements We are grateful for the excellent support provided by the following students who worked as research assistants during the summer of 2003:

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Teaching strategies and approaches for pupils with special educational needs: a scoping study

Evidence-based school counseling: making a difference with data-driven practices, by Carey Dimmitt, John C. Carey and Trish Hatch, Thousand Oaks, CA, Corwin/Sage, 2007, 225 pp., £18.99, ISBN 978 1 ...

Evidence-based school counseling: Making a difference with data-driven practices

Background/Aims/Objectives: This prospective, comparative outcome study was designed to contrast the
relative impact of differing therapeutic interventions for trauma victims, carried out by the same therapist.
Methods/Methodology: A non-random convenience sample (N=32) of participants, referred for therapy
following a traumatic incident, were randomly assigned to receive up to 12 sessions of either Cognitive
Behaviour Therapy (CBT), or CBT coupled with Compassionate Mind Training (CMT). A repeated
measures design was used and data was analysed using analysis of variance. Data was gathered pre-therapy
and post-therapy, using three self-report questionnaires (Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale; Impact of
Events Scale; the Self-Compassion Scale).
Results/Findings: Results supported two of the three original hypotheses. Participants in both conditions
experienced a highly statistically significant reduction in symptoms of anxiety, depression, avoidant
behaviour, intrusive thoughts and hyper-arousal symptoms post-therapy. Participants in the combined CBT
and CMT condition developed statistically significant higher self-compassion scores post-therapy than the
CBT-only group [F(1,30)=4.657, p≤.05]. There was no significant difference between treatment groups.
Discussion/Conclusions: The results suggest that CMT may be a useful addition to CBT for clients suffering
with trauma-related symptoms. In conclusion, high levels of self-compassion are linked to a decrease in anxiety
and depression and trauma-related symptoms.
Keywords: trauma; cognitive behaviour therapy; compassionate mind training; counselling psychology.

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'Being kinder to myself': A prospective comparative study, exploring post-trauma therapy outcome measures, for two groups of clients, receiving either Cognitive Behaviour Therapy or Cognitive Behaviour Therapy and Compassionate Mind Training

This paper explores the current state of counselling as provided by local education authorities (LEAs) to secondary schools in England and Wales. A questionnaire was sent to all 172 LEAs in England and Wales. The data suggest that the counselling provision is highly variable and somewhat fragmented in scope. The data also indicate that the perception of the role of school counselling services by educational professionals varies considerably, and that there were a number of issues concerning integrated versus decentralized forms of provision. The study has a number of implications for the main stakeholders, including schools, LEAs, pupils and parents, concerning future developments in this increasingly important policy area. These relate to minimum qualifications for counsellors, confidentiality, accessibility to pupils and funding.

Provision of counselling services in secondary schools: a survey of Local Education Authorities in England and Wales

A questionnaire survey of 607 secondary schools in England and Wales, carried out in 2003–4, provided initial information on counselling as being a decentralized, largely school-based, demand-led, non-statutory, multi-sourced form of provision. It was mainly school funded, broadly child-centred and was provided by individual counsellors, who were directed by school managers in a loosely integrated manner. The advantages of school counselling were identified as benefiting individual pupils and as providing educational, behavioural and social benefits to the host school. The disadvantages were largely managerial and professional, i.e. related to resources and addressing the barriers to future service development.

The authors contrast this diverse, demand-led model of counselling provision with the emerging profile of counselling, provided by multi-agency teams, based in extended schools, which is promoted by the Green Paper, ‘Every Child Matters’. The community focus of such a model, and expectations of high levels of information sharing among professional staff with flexible role descriptions, are likely to present major challenges to existing role-based forms of school counselling. Particular issues explored are the professional orientation of the service, confidentiality and relationship with other professions.

Peter Jenkins

Papers

Teaching strategies and approaches for pupils with special educational needs: a scoping study

Evidence-based school counseling: Making a difference with data-driven practices

'Being kinder to myself': A prospective comparative study, exploring post-trauma therapy outcome measures, for two groups of clients, receiving either Cognitive Behaviour Therapy or Cognitive Behaviour Therapy and Compassionate Mind Training

Provision of counselling services in secondary schools: a survey of Local Education Authorities in England and Wales

The Children Act 2004 and Implications for Counselling in Schools in England and Wales