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In his Preface the author' says that he started out to review all the more important theories upon the topics ordinarily discussed under human motivation but soon found himself more and more limited to the presentation of his own point of view. This very well characterizes the book. It is a very personal product. It is an outline with some defense of the author's own thinking about instincts and appetites and sentiments and how they function in human behavior. And as the author draws so heavily upon James and McDougall, especially the latter, the book may well be looked upon as a sort of sequel to their efforts. There is a thought-provoking distinction presented between instinct and appetite. An instinct is said to be aroused always by something in the external situation; and, correspondingly, an appetite is said to be aroused by sensations from within the body itself. This places, of course, a heavy emphasis upon the cognitive factor in all instinctive behaviors; and the author prefers to use the cognitive factor, especially the knowledge of that end-experience which will satisfy, as a means of differentiating one instinct from another. In this there is a recognized difference from McDougall who placed more emphasis for differentiation upon the emotional accompaniment. The list of instincts arrived at by this procedure is much like that of McDougall, although the author is forced by his criteria to present the possibility of food-seeking and sex and sleep operating both in the manner of an appetite and also as an instinct. The Shand-McDougall concept of sentiment is taken over and used in the explanation of moral motivation. There is the development within each personality of a sentiment for some moral principle. But this sentiment is not a very powerful motivating factor. It is reinforced by social pressures and by religion, which is treated as an effort of finite man to live in harmony with the infinite reality. Those whose psychological thinking is largely in terms of McDougall will doubtless find this volume a very satisfying expansion; but those who are at all inclined to support their psychological thinking by reference to experimental studies will not be so well pleased. The James-Lange theory, for example, is discussed without mention of the many experimental studies which it has provoked. Theoretical sources appear in general to be preferred to experimental investigations.

Human MotivationThe Mind in Action: A Study of Motives and Values. A. Campbell Garnett

The neuropeptides oxytocin (OXT) and arginine vasopressin (AVP) are evolutionarily highly conserved mediators in the regulation of complex social cognition and behaviour. Recent studies have investigated the effects of OXT and AVP on human social interaction, the genetic mechanisms of inter-individual variation in social neuropeptide signalling and the actions of OXT and AVP in the human brain as revealed by neuroimaging. These data have advanced our understanding of the mechanisms by which these neuropeptides contribute to human social behaviour. OXT and AVP are emerging as targets for novel treatment approaches — particularly in synergistic combination with psychotherapy — for mental disorders characterized by social dysfunction, such as autism, social anxiety disorder, borderline personality disorder and schizophrenia.

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Oxytocin and vasopressin in the human brain: social neuropeptides for translational medicine

Principles of Topological Psychology

J. KEVIN THOMPSON, LESLIE J. HEINBERG, MADELINE ALTABE, AND STACEY TANTELEFF-DUNN: Exacting Beauty: Theory, Assessment, and Treatment of Body Image Disturbance. American Psychological Association, Washington, D.C., 1998, 396 pp., $39.95, ISBN 1-55798-541-3. The goal of this book-the third on body image that was either authored or edited by J. Kevin Thompson-is "to attempt to integrate theory, assessment, and treatment for the field of body image; to provide a guide for researchers and clinicians interested in the field of body image disturbance and to bridge research and practice." After reading this text, the clinician would hope to come away with a clear sense of the etiology of body-image disturbances and then to be able to identify the best clinical treatment that would match patient diagnostic presentation. Although the research material is well handled, the treatment aspect is somewhat incomplete. The authors present a good overall view of the origin of body image and body-image disturbance, and an excellent historical review of research in the field of eating disorders, i.e., anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa, as well as bingeeating disorder and obesity. The book also addresses the complexity of defining, measuring, and creating theoretical models while exploring the social and cultural aspects of body image and the public media emphasis on thinness. And it outlines the current thinking about making a differential diagnosis of body-dysmorphic disorder, often a difficult matter. Some important work in body-dysmorphic disorder is missing, however, such as that of Eric Hollander, M.D. The book's forte is presenting the reader with a strong array of models for measurements and assessment and different testing methodologies, as well as including helpful tables, appendices, and references. The 11 chapters are divided into five parts: 1. An Overview: Prevalence, Diversity, Assessment, and Treatment; 2. Societal and Social Approaches; 3. Interpersonal Approaches; 4. Feminist Approaches; and 5. Behavioral, Cognitive, and Integrative Approaches. The term "approaches" is somewhat misleading because it infers presentation of several different treatment methodologies that the book only partially delivers. The authors conclude that the cognitive-behavioral modality of treatment, supported by "empirical findings," has been the most successful in the treatment of body image thus far, and they are not nearly as exhaustive in covering other treatment modalities, such as the feminist perspective. …

Exacting Beauty: Theory, Assessment, and Treatment of Body Image Disturbance

Oxytocin buffers cortisol responses to stress in individuals with impaired emotion regulation abilities

Body image disturbance is associated with several mental disorders. Previous research on body image has focused mostly on women, largely neglecting body image in men. Moreover, only a small number of studies have conducted gender comparisons of body image over the lifespan and included participants aged 50 years and older. With regard to measurement, body image has often been assessed only in terms of body dissatisfaction, disregarding further aspects such as body appreciation or the importance of appearance. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to explore different aspects of body image in the general German-speaking population and to compare men and women of various ages. Participants completed an online survey comprising questionnaires about body image. Body dissatisfaction, importance of appearance, the number of hours per day participants would invest and the number of years they would sacrifice to achieve their ideal appearance, and body appreciation were assessed and analyzed with respect to gender and age differences. We hypothesized that body dissatisfaction and importance of appearance would be higher in women than in men, that body dissatisfaction would remain stable across age in women, and that importance of appearance would be lower in older women compared to younger women. Body appreciation was predicted to be higher in men than in women. General and generalized linear models were used to examine the impact of age and gender. In line with our hypotheses, body dissatisfaction was higher in women than in men and was unaffected by age in women, and importance of appearance was higher in women than in men. However, only in men did age predict a lower level of the importance of appearance. Compared to men, women stated that they would invest more hours of their lives to achieve their ideal appearance. For both genders, age was a predictor of the number of years participants would sacrifice to achieve their ideal appearance. Contrary to our assumption, body appreciation improved and was higher in women across all ages than in men. The results seem to suggest that men's and women's body image are dissimilar and appear to vary across different ages.

/pdf/body-dissatisfaction-importance-of-appearance-and-body-2pqc8msi64.pdf

Body Dissatisfaction, Importance of Appearance, and Body Appreciation in Men and Women Over the Lifespan.

The recent outbreak of the coronavirus disease (Covid-19) has plunged countries across the world into crisis. Both in the general population and in specific subgroups such as infected people or health care workers, studies have reported increased symptoms of anxiety, depression and stress. However, the reactions of individuals with mental disorders to Covid-19 have largely been neglected. The present study therefore aimed to investigate the perceived impact of Covid-19 and its psychological consequences on people with mental disorders. In this online survey, participants were asked to evaluate their disorder-specific symptoms, perceived psychosocial stress and behaviors related to Covid-19 in the current situation and retrospectively before the spread of Covid-19. The study included participants with self-identified generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), panic disorder and agoraphobia (PA), illness anxiety disorder (IA), social anxiety disorder (SAD), depression (DP), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), eating disorders (ED), schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders (SP), other non-specified mental disorder (other) as well as mentally healthy controls (HC). The results of bayesian parameter estimation suggest that the symptom severity of DP, GAD, IA and BDD has deteriorated as a reaction to Covid-19. Across all mental disorders and HC, self-reported psychosocial stress levels were higher during the outbreak of Covid-19 compared to before. A reduced frequency of social contacts and grocery shopping was found for all participants. People with self-identified mental disorders showed higher personal worries about Covid-19 and a higher fear of contagion with Covid-19 than did HC. According to our findings, Covid-19 may reinforce symptom severity and psychosocial stress in individuals with mental disorders. In times of pandemics, special support is needed to assist people with mental disorders and to prevent symptom deterioration.

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Rainer Düsing

Papers

Oxytocin buffers cortisol responses to stress in individuals with impaired emotion regulation abilities

Body Dissatisfaction, Importance of Appearance, and Body Appreciation in Men and Women Over the Lifespan.

Perceived Impact of Covid-19 Across Different Mental Disorders: A Study on Disorder-Specific Symptoms, Psychosocial Stress and Behavior.

Relative frontal brain asymmetry and cortisol release after social stress: The role of action orientation

Male body image and visual attention towards oneself and other men.