An important component of routine visual behavior is the ability to find one item in a visual world filled with other, distracting items. This ability to performvisual search has been the subject of a large body of research in the past 15 years. This paper reviews the visual search literature and presents a model of human search behavior. Built upon the work of Neisser, Treisman, Julesz, and others, the model distinguishes between a preattentive, massively parallel stage that processes information about basic visual features (color, motion, various depth cues, etc.) across large portions of the visual field and a subsequent limited-capacity stage that performs other, more complex operations (e.g., face recognition, reading, object identification) over a limited portion of the visual field. The spatial deployment of the limited-capacity process is under attentional control. The heart of the guided search model is the idea that attentional deployment of limited resources isguided by the output of the earlier parallel processes. Guided Search 2.0 (GS2) is a revision of the model in which virtually all aspects of the model have been made more explicit and/or revised in light of new data. The paper is organized into four parts: Part 1 presents the model and the details of its computer simulation. Part 2 reviews the visual search literature on preattentive processing of basic features and shows how the GS2 simulation reproduces those results. Part 3 reviews the literature on the attentional deployment of limited-capacity processes in conjunction and serial searches and shows how the simulation handles those conditions. Finally, Part 4 deals with shortcomings of the model and unresolved issues.

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Guided Search 2.0 A revised model of visual search

As video-game playing has become a ubiquitous activity in today's society, it is worth considering its potential consequences on perceptual and motor skills. It is well known that exposing an organism to an altered visual environment often results in modification of the visual system of the organism. The field of perceptual learning provides many examples of training-induced increases in performance. But perceptual learning, when it occurs, tends to be specific to the trained task; that is, generalization to new tasks is rarely found. Here we show, by contrast, that action-video-game playing is capable of altering a range of visual skills. Four experiments establish changes in different aspects of visual attention in habitual video-game players as compared with non-video-game players. In a fifth experiment, non-players trained on an action video game show marked improvement from their pre-training abilities, thereby establishing the role of playing in this effect.

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Action video game modifies visual selective attention

ContextCognitive function in older adults is related to independent living
and need for care. However, few studies have addressed whether improving cognitive
functions might have short- or long-term effects on activities related to
living independently.ObjectiveTo evaluate whether 3 cognitive training interventions improve mental
abilities and daily functioning in older, independent-living adults.DesignRandomized, controlled, single-blind trial with recruitment conducted
from March 1998 to October 1999 and 2-year follow-up through December 2001.Setting and ParticipantsVolunteer sample of 2832 persons aged 65 to 94 years recruited from
senior housing, community centers, and hospital/clinics in 6 metropolitan
areas in the United States.InterventionsParticipants were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 groups: 10-session group
training for memory (verbal episodic memory; n = 711), or reasoning (ability
to solve problems that follow a serial pattern; n = 705), or speed of processing
(visual search and identification; n = 712); or a no-contact control group
(n = 704). For the 3 treatment groups, 4-session booster training was offered
to a 60% random sample 11 months later.Main Outcome MeasuresCognitive function and cognitively demanding everyday functioning.ResultsThirty participants were incorrectly randomized and were excluded from
the analysis. Each intervention improved the targeted cognitive ability compared
with baseline, durable to 2 years (P<.001 for
all). Eighty-seven percent of speed-, 74% of reasoning-, and 26% of memory-trained
participants demonstrated reliable cognitive improvement immediately after
the intervention period. Booster training enhanced training gains in speed
(P<.001) and reasoning (P<.001)
interventions (speed booster, 92%; no booster, 68%; reasoning booster, 72%;
no booster, 49%), which were maintained at 2-year follow-up (P<.001 for both). No training effects on everyday functioning were
detected at 2 years.ConclusionsResults support the effectiveness and durability of the cognitive training
interventions in improving targeted cognitive abilities. Training effects
were of a magnitude equivalent to the amount of decline expected in elderly
persons without dementia over 7- to 14-year intervals. Because of minimal
functional decline across all groups, longer follow-up is likely required
to observe training effects on everyday function.

https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/articlepdf/195506/JOC21020.pdf

Effects of Cognitive training interventions with older adults. A randomized controlled trial

A load theory of attention in which distractor rejection depends on the level and type of load involved in current processing was tested. A series of experiments demonstrates that whereas high perceptual load reduces distractor interference, working memory load or dual-task coordination load increases distractor interference. These findings suggest 2 selective attention mechanisms: a perceptual selection mechanism serving to reduce distractor perception in situations of high perceptual load that exhaust perceptual capacity in processing relevant stimuli and a cognitive control mechanism that reduces interference from perceived distractors as long as cognitive control functions are available to maintain current priorities (low cognitive load). This theory resolves the long-standing early versus late selection debate and clarifies the role of cognitive control in selective attention.

Load Theory of Selective Attention and Cognitive Control

ContextCognitive training has been shown to improve cognitive abilities in older adults but the effects of cognitive training on everyday function have not been demonstrated.ObjectiveTo determine the effects of cognitive training on daily function and durability of training on cognitive abilities.Design, Setting, and ParticipantsFive-year follow-up of a randomized controlled single-blind trial with 4 treatment groups. A volunteer sample of 2832 persons (mean age, 73.6 years; 26% black), living independently in 6 US cities, was recruited from senior housing, community centers, and hospitals and clinics. The study was conducted between April 1998 and December 2004. Five-year follow-up was completed in 67% of the sample.InterventionsTen-session training for memory (verbal episodic memory), reasoning (inductive reasoning), or speed of processing (visual search and identification); 4-session booster training at 11 and 35 months after training in a random sample of those who completed training.Main Outcome MeasuresSelf-reported and performance-based measures of daily function and cognitive abilities.ResultsThe reasoning group reported significantly less difficulty in the instrumental activities of daily living (IADL) than the control group (effect size, 0.29; 99% confidence interval [CI], 0.03-0.55). Neither speed of processing training (effect size, 0.26; 99% CI, −0.002 to 0.51) nor memory training (effect size, 0.20; 99% CI, −0.06 to 0.46) had a significant effect on IADL. The booster training for the speed of processing group, but not for the other 2 groups, showed a significant effect on the performance-based functional measure of everyday speed of processing (effect size, 0.30; 99% CI, 0.08-0.52). No booster effects were seen for any of the groups for everyday problem-solving or self-reported difficulty in IADL. Each intervention maintained effects on its specific targeted cognitive ability through 5 years (memory: effect size, 0.23 [99% CI, 0.11-0.35]; reasoning: effect size, 0.26 [99% CI, 0.17-0.35]; speed of processing: effect size, 0.76 [99% CI, 0.62-0.90]). Booster training produced additional improvement with the reasoning intervention for reasoning performance (effect size, 0.28; 99% CI, 0.12-0.43) and the speed of processing intervention for speed of processing performance (effect size, 0.85; 99% CI, 0.61-1.09).ConclusionsReasoning training resulted in less functional decline in self-reported IADL. Compared with the control group, cognitive training resulted in improved cognitive abilities specific to the abilities trained that continued 5 years after the initiation of the intervention.Trial Registrationclinicaltrials.gov Identifier: NCT00298558

/pdf/long-term-effects-of-cognitive-training-on-everyday-5b88b4bt1o.pdf

Long-term effects of cognitive training on everyday functional outcomes in older adults

The useful field of view is defined as the visual area in which information can be acquired within one eye fixation. We studied visual search within this context and found a reduction in the size of the field as a function of age. This loss, however, was recovered partially with practice. Standard acuity and perimetric tests of visual field, although diagnostic of disease, underestimate the degree of difficulty experienced by visually healthy older adults in everyday activities requiring the use of peripheral vision. To aid in predicting such performance, a model incorporating the effects of distractors and secondary task demands was developed.

Age and visual search: expanding the useful field of view.

The Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (SEI) was examined using a modified version of the Sabers and Whitney model for construct validation. The SEI, Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale (CSCS), and Children's Social Desirability Scale (CSDS) were administered to 55 males and 50 females enrolled in six intact fifth-grade classes. Each student also received a teacher rating of self-concept using the Coopersmith Behavioral Academic Assessment Scale (BASE). Regression analyses indicated that the SEI has convergent validity with regard to the CSCS (p .05), is sensitive to differences in achievement level (p < .01), and is internally consistent (coefficient alpha = .86). Intra-rater stability for the BASE ranged from .85 to .97; average inter-rater agreement was .86.

The Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory: A Construct Validation Study:

Issue Section: Articles © 1980 by the National Association f or Music Therapy, Inc. You do not currently have access to this article. Download all figures The success of the therapeutic use of music in various institutions and other research settings has pointed to the possibilities of using music to reduce anxiety in high-anxiety subjects. Ten sections of introductory psychology students (n = 321) were randomly assigned to one of four treatment conditions or the control group. Forms A and B of the Eight State Questionnaire (8SQ) were administered in a counterbalanced fashion prior to and following the music (or no music) treatment. Results proved to be statistically nonsignificant. However, a trend was noted for sedative music to have some anxiety-reducing effects upon high state anxiety subjects. Implications of the study and a need for research investigating the effects of music on simultaneous psychological and physiological measures of anxiety were discussed.

Degrees of Familiar and Affective Music and Their Effects on State Anxiety

Purpose – The authors share the observations of a combined 70 years of consultation with organizations, and input from tens of thousands of worldwide employees, to explore conventional barriers encountered in the work environment and how to “break‐out‐of‐the‐box” to find more creative solutions to organizational problems.Design/methodology/approach – Narrative based on over 70 years of consultation with organizations on a wide variety of related managerial subjects.Findings – Certain behaviors must precede any attempts to create a fulfilling, stimulating, and freedom‐to‐think, creative work environment. Formulation and fulfillment of a psychological contract, especially on the part of the organization's leaders – but also including employees – seems to be an effective process for the development of an open, healthy climate which is encouraging and conducive to the development of creativity. In the larger view of the organization, such freedom which comes from clear understanding and expression of expectat...

Breaking‐out‐of‐the‐box in organizations: Structuring a positive climate for the development of creativity in the workplace

TQM philosophy is that continuous improvement within an organization is possible. It is people‐oriented and customer focused. To be successful it must involve all people within the organization and must have customer feedback. Discusses in detail the reasons why this fails: managers do not delegate quality to involve everyone in the organization; appropriate consultants to implement the system are not evaluated properly; lack of employee involvement; failure of management leadership with too much emphasis on cost cutting and profits, not customer service; poor communication with workforce; resistance to change. Benchmarking must be established to measure the effects of TQM and a long‐term plan to establish goals. A good supplier relationship, teamwork and employee participation are all required concepts within a successful TQM programme.

Richard Miller

Papers

Age and visual search: expanding the useful field of view.

The Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory: A Construct Validation Study:

Degrees of Familiar and Affective Music and Their Effects on State Anxiety

Breaking‐out‐of‐the‐box in organizations: Structuring a positive climate for the development of creativity in the workplace

Why Total Quality Management Fails: Perspective of Top Management