The calculation of rate coefficients is a discipline of nonlinear science of importance to much of physics, chemistry, engineering, and biology. Fifty years after Kramers' seminal paper on thermally activated barrier crossing, the authors report, extend, and interpret much of our current understanding relating to theories of noise-activated escape, for which many of the notable contributions are originating from the communities both of physics and of physical chemistry. Theoretical as well as numerical approaches are discussed for single- and many-dimensional metastable systems (including fields) in gases and condensed phases. The role of many-dimensional transition-state theory is contrasted with Kramers' reaction-rate theory for moderate-to-strong friction; the authors emphasize the physical situation and the close connection between unimolecular rate theory and Kramers' work for weakly damped systems. The rate theory accounting for memory friction is presented, together with a unifying theoretical approach which covers the whole regime of weak-to-moderate-to-strong friction on the same basis (turnover theory). The peculiarities of noise-activated escape in a variety of physically different metastable potential configurations is elucidated in terms of the mean-first-passage-time technique. Moreover, the role and the complexity of escape in driven systems exhibiting possibly multiple, metastable stationary nonequilibrium states is identified. At lower temperatures, quantum tunneling effects start to dominate the rate mechanism. The early quantum approaches as well as the latest quantum versions of Kramers' theory are discussed, thereby providing a description of dissipative escape events at all temperatures. In addition, an attempt is made to discuss prominent experimental work as it relates to Kramers' reaction-rate theory and to indicate the most important areas for future research in theory and experiment.

Reaction-rate theory: fifty years after Kramers

Quantum tunnelling in a dissipative system

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An Introduction To The Event Related Potential Technique

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Art of electronics

Microwave photonics with superconducting quantum circuits

In this paper we describe a new approach to the detection of human body electrical activity which has been made possible by recent advances in ultra-low-noise, ultra-high-input-impedance probes. As we demonstrate, these probes, which do not require a real current conducting path in order to operate, can be used non-invasively both on and off body. We present remarkable new data showing the application of these probes to the remote, off-body, sensing of the electrical activity of the heart at distances of up to 1 m from the body and to high-resolution electrocardiograms. We suggest that in the future such probes may form the basis of a radically new technology for measuring the dynamics of the human body as well as in non-contact, imaging systems for pre-emptive and diagnostic medicine.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0957-0233/13/2/304/pdf

Electric potential probes - new directions in the remote sensing of the human body

In this paper we describe a new very-low-noise, high-input-impedance probe developed to make non-contact measurements of electrical potentials generated by currents flowing in the human body. With a noise level of 2 µV Hz-1/2 at 1 Hz, down to 0.1 µV Hz-1/2 at 1 kHz, and an operational bandwidth from 0.01 Hz to 100 KHz, this probe would seem well suited to the detection of a wide range of electrical activity in the body.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0957-0233/11/3/318/pdf

An ultra-low-noise electrical-potential probe for human-body scanning

In this letter, we demonstrate the use of very high performance, ultrahigh impedance, electric potential probes in the detection of electrical activity in the brain. We show that these sensors, requiring no electrical or physical contact with the body, can be used to monitor the human electroencephalogram (EEG) revealing, as examples, the α and β rhythms and the α blocking phenomenon. We suggest that the advantages offered by these sensors compared with the currently used contact (Ag/AgCl) electrodes may act to stimulate new developments in multichannel EEG monitoring and in real-time electrical imaging of the brain.

Remote Detection of Human Electroencephalograms using Ultrahigh Input Impedance Electric Potential Sensors

An electrodynamic sensor comprises a high input impedance electrometer adapted to measure small electrical potentials originating from an object under test and having a pair of input probes, characterised in that at least one of said pair of input probes has no direct electrical contact with said object, wherein the circuit arrangement of said electrometer comprises an amplifier which includes a combination of ancillary circuits cumulatively to increase the sensitivity of said electrometer to said small electrical potentials whilst not perturbing the electrical field associated therewith.

Electrodynamic sensors and applications thereof

In this paper we describe the application of an electric potential sensor to the ambulatory monitoring of the human electrocardiogram (ECG). We show that a high resolution ECG can be acquired using two of these sensors mounted wristwatch style, one on each wrist. These sensors, which do not require a real current conducting path in order to operate, are used non-invasively without making electrical contact to the subject. Furthermore, their sensitivity and low noise floor have made it possible to detect a peak which corresponds, in timing, to the His bundle depolarization?a feature not normally seen in conventional surface ECGs. We predict that these new devices will rapidly find application in the areas of clinical medicine and ambulatory monitoring.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0957-0233/14/7/305/pdf

Robert J. Prance

Papers

Electric potential probes - new directions in the remote sensing of the human body

An ultra-low-noise electrical-potential probe for human-body scanning

Remote Detection of Human Electroencephalograms using Ultrahigh Input Impedance Electric Potential Sensors

Electrodynamic sensors and applications thereof

High resolution ambulatory electrocardiographic monitoring using wrist mounted electric potential sensors