The global decline in estuarine and coastal ecosystems (ECEs) is affecting a number of critical benefits, or ecosystem services. We review the main ecological services across a variety of ECEs, including marshes, mangroves, nearshore coral reefs, seagrass beds, and sand beaches and dunes. Where possible, we indicate estimates of the key economic values arising from these services, and discuss how the natural variability of ECEs impacts their benefits, the synergistic relationships of ECEs across seascapes, and management implications. Although reliable valuation estimates are beginning to emerge for the key services of some ECEs, such as coral reefs, salt marshes, and mangroves, many of the important benefits of seagrass beds and sand dunes and beaches have not been assessed properly. Even for coral reefs, marshes, and mangroves, important ecological services have yet to be valued reliably, such as cross-ecosystem nutrient transfer (coral reefs), erosion control (marshes), and pollution control (mangroves). An important issue for valuing certain ECE services, such as coastal protection and habitat-fishery linkages, is that the ecological functions underlying these services vary spatially and temporally. Allowing for the connectivity between ECE habitats also may have important implications for assessing the ecological functions underlying key ecosystems services, such coastal protection, control of erosion, and habitat-fishery linkages. Finally, we conclude by suggesting an action plan for protecting and/or enhancing the immediate and longer-term values of ECE services. Because the connectivity of ECEs across land-sea gradients also influences the provision of certain ecosystem services, management of the entire seascape will be necessary to preserve such synergistic effects. Other key elements of an action plan include further ecological and economic collaborative research on valuing ECE services, improving institutional and legal frameworks for management, controlling and regulating destructive economic activities, and developing ecological restoration options.

https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1890/10-1510.1

The value of estuarine and coastal ecosystem services

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Technical Paper Climate Change and Water draws together and evaluates the information in IPCC Assessment and Special Reports concerning the impacts of climate change on hydrological processes and regimes, and on freshwater resources – their availability, quality, use and management. It takes into account current and projected regional key vulnerabilities, prospects for adaptation, and the relationships between climate change mitigation and water. Its objectives are:

/pdf/climate-change-and-water-2dpc0zbpsj.pdf

Climate change and water.

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Remote Sensing And Image Interpretation

Changes in climate extremes and their impacts on the natural physical environment: An overview of the IPCC SREX report

The State of Food and Agriculture

A mathematical model for flood loss estimation

A flow-interval hillslope discretization scheme is proposed for catchment hydrological modelling. By this scheme, a two-dimensiona l catchment is simplified into a one-dimensional cascade of flow intervals linked by the main stream. Each flow interval comprises a set of parallel hillslopes. The hillslope is the fundamental compu­ tational unit in the hydrological model providing lateral inflow to the main stream. The size of hillslope is determined by the catchment area and width functions. Catchment runoff is the total of hillslope responses through the river routing. Tests in four Japanese catchments showed that the model performed well on simulating the overall water balance, general flow pattern, and daily and hourly hydrographs of a whole catchment, as well as simultaneous simulation in different subcatchments. Characteristics of catchment hydrological responses and model applicability are discussed.

A hillslope-based hydrological model using catchment area and width functions

Numerous studies have been conducted on homegarden systems by researchers from different disciplines and countries, but most of them focus on ecological structure or specific ecosystem services in a selected study area. Few studies take a comprehensive look at the ecosystem services provided by homegardens, especially on a regional scale. This paper shows how these homegardens are ecologically, socially, and economically diversified and how beneficial they are to human well-being as ecosystem services. It also investigates the impacts of drivers on homegarden systems in rural areas in three countries. These studies involved comprehensive literature reviews and field survey along with a framework of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Four types of ecosystem services—provision, regulation, cultural, and support—were assessed and compared. We found that traditional homegardens maintain high ecosystem diversity especially in rural areas; however, recent socio-economic changes are converting subsistence-oriented homegardens into commercial ones. Future challenges for further research include how to enhance the resilience of homegarden systems against socioeconomic and global climate changes by integrating traditional homegarden systems, modern technology, and the global economy.

Assessment of ecosystem services in homegarden systems in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam

Most physically-based hydrological models rely on either spatially distributed or lumped characterizations of topography and other spatial variations. Three disturbed hydrological models with different treatments of topography, namely the MIKE SHE, TOPMODEL and GB model (geomorphology-based hydrological model) are discussed in this paper. A regular square grid system is used by MIKE SHE for representation of catchment spatial variability and as the fundamental computation units. TOPMODEL characterizes the topography using a distributed topographic index, ln(a/tan β). The areas with the same ln(a/tan β) are assumed to be hydrologically similar. Then, the catchment is divided into a number of segments corresponding to the topographic index intervals. The GB model employs the catchment area function and width function to lump the topography and divide the catchment into a series of flow interval-hillslopes. The catchment spatial variations are averaged over each flow interval and represented by one-dimensional distribution functions with respect to the flow distance from the catchment outlet. The hillslope elements are the fundamental computational units in the GB model. The above three models are applied to the Seki River in Japan. The model structure and performance are compared and discussed in the paper. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Comparison of different distributed hydrological models for characterization of catchment spatial variability

A physically based distributed hydrologic model is developed in this study for flood inundation simulation combining newly developed overland and channel network flow simulation models with evapotranspiration, unsaturated zone and saturated zone models. The overland flow and river flow models are validated individually with test data, and then coupled with other models. The model can take fine resolution spatial data as input preserving spatial heterogeneity of physical characteristics of a river basin. River embankments play an important role in flood prevention. The model can incorporate river embankment data in flood inundation simulation. The model is applied in a river catchment in Japan to simulate a flood event in 1996. Outputs from the model show good agreements with observed flood hydrographs and surveyed flood inundation. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Srikantha Herath

Papers

A mathematical model for flood loss estimation

A hillslope-based hydrological model using catchment area and width functions

Assessment of ecosystem services in homegarden systems in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam

Comparison of different distributed hydrological models for characterization of catchment spatial variability

Flood inundation simulation in a river basin using a physically based distributed hydrologic model