抗原变异可使得多种致病微生物易于逃避宿主免疫应答。表达在感染红细胞表面的恶性疟原虫红细胞表面蛋白1（PfPMP1）与感染红细胞、内皮细胞、树突状细胞以及胎盘的单个或多个受体作用，在黏附及免疫逃避中起关键的作用。每个单倍体基因组var基因家族编码约60种成员，通过启动转录不同的var基因变异体为抗原变异提供了分子基础。

疟原虫var基因转换速率变化导致抗原变异[英]／Paul H, Robert P, Christodoulou Z, et al//Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A

Preface to the Princeton Landmarks in Biology Edition vii Preface xi Symbols Used xiii 1. The Importance of Islands 3 2. Area and Number of Speicies 8 3. Further Explanations of the Area-Diversity Pattern 19 4. The Strategy of Colonization 68 5. Invasibility and the Variable Niche 94 6. Stepping Stones and Biotic Exchange 123 7. Evolutionary Changes Following Colonization 145 8. Prospect 181 Glossary 185 References 193 Index 201

The Theory of Island Biogeography

Hypothesis-testing methods for multivariate data are needed to make rigorous probability statements about the effects of factors and their interactions in experiments. Analysis of variance is particularly powerful for the analysis of univariate data. The traditional multivariate analogues, however, are too stringent in their assumptions for most ecological multivariate data sets. Non-parametric methods, based on permutation tests, are preferable. This paper describes a new non-parametric method for multivariate analysis of variance, after McArdle and Anderson (in press). It is given here, with several applications in ecology, to provide an alternative and perhaps more intuitive formulation for ANOVA (based on sums of squared distances) to complement the description pro- vided by McArdle and Anderson (in press) for the analysis of any linear model. It is an improvement on previous non-parametric methods because it allows a direct additive partitioning of variation for complex models. It does this while maintaining the flexibility and lack of formal assumptions of other non-parametric methods. The test- statistic is a multivariate analogue to Fisher's F-ratio and is calculated directly from any symmetric distance or dissimilarity matrix. P-values are then obtained using permutations. Some examples of the method are given for tests involving several factors, including factorial and hierarchical (nested) designs and tests of interactions.

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A new method for non-parametric multivariate analysis of variance

Land use has generally been considered a local environmental issue, but it is becoming a force of global importance. Worldwide changes to forests, farmlands, waterways, and air are being driven by the need to provide food, fiber, water, and shelter to more than six billion people. Global croplands, pastures, plantations, and urban areas have expanded in recent decades, accompanied by large increases in energy, water, and fertilizer consumption, along with considerable losses of biodiversity. Such changes in land use have enabled humans to appropriate an increasing share of the planet’s resources, but they also potentially undermine the capacity of ecosystems to sustain food production, maintain freshwater and forest resources, regulate climate and air quality, and ameliorate infectious diseases. We face the challenge of managing trade-offs between immediate human needs and maintaining the capacity of the biosphere to provide goods and services in the long term.

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Global Consequences of Land Use

世界経済・社会統計 = World development indicators

A widespread change in ecosystems has been the alteration of food webs through human impacts on large-bodied predators. These changes should have strong effects on the abundance and the temporal variability of other components of the food web, but there have been few experimental tests at large scales. We evaluated population variability in response to whole-lake food web manipulations using a 7-year time series of zooplankton abundances in three lakes. Food webs were altered by manipulating fish populations in two lakes, and one lake served as a reference system. The variability of zooplankton populations was higher in the manipulated lakes relative to the reference system. The food web manipulations in the two experimental lakes differed in frequency and strength. Population variability was similar, however, in the two systems and not related to the experimental perturbations imposed. The most variable zoo-plankton populations were those most susceptible to fish predation. Ecosystem level changes clearly affect population dynamics, and shifts in populations can have strong impacts on ecosystem processes such as primary production. Integration of population and ecosystem studies should lead to improved understanding and prediction of the dynamics of ecological systems.

Population Variability in Experimental Ecosystems

The ecologist C. S. Holling was a visionary of change in nature and society.

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C. S. ‘Buzz’ Holling, 6 December 1930 – 16 August 2019

North Temperate Lakes LTER: Benthic Macroinvertebrates 1981 - current

Keystone Species and Academic-Agency Collaboration

(1993). Phosphorus in food webs: Compensatory responses in experimental lakes. SIL Proceedings, 1922-2010: Vol. 25, No. 1, pp. 344-348.

Stephen R. Carpenter

Papers

Population Variability in Experimental Ecosystems

C. S. ‘Buzz’ Holling, 6 December 1930 – 16 August 2019

North Temperate Lakes LTER: Benthic Macroinvertebrates 1981 - current

Keystone Species and Academic-Agency Collaboration

Phosphorus in food webs: Compensatory responses in experimental lakes