Cooperation in organisms, whether bacteria or primates, has been a difficulty for evolutionary theory since Darwin. On the assumption that interactions between pairs of individuals occur on a probabilistic basis, a model is developed based on the concept of an evolutionarily stable strategy in the context of the Prisoner's Dilemma game. Deductions from the model, and the results of a computer tournament show how cooperation based on reciprocity can get started in an asocial world, can thrive while interacting with a wide range of other strategies, and can resist invasion once fully established. Potential applications include specific aspects of territoriality, mating, and disease.

The Evolution of Cooperation

Research on the relation between attitude and behavior is examined in light of the correspondence between attitudinal and behavioral entities. Such entities are defined by their target, action, context, and time elements. A review of available empirical research supports the contention that strong attitude-behavior relations dre obtained only under high correspondence between at least the target and action elements of the attitudinal and behavioral entities. This conclusion is compared with the rather pessimistic assessment of the utility of the attitude concept found in much contemporary social psychological literature.

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Attitude-behavior relations: A theoretical analysis and review of empirical research.

Stereotype research emphasizes systematic processes over seemingly arbitrary contents, but content also may prove systematic. On the basis of stereotypes' intergroup functions, the stereotype content model hypothesizes that (a) 2 primary dimensions are competence and warmth, (b) frequent mixed clusters combine high warmth with low competence (paternalistic) or high competence with low warmth (envious), and (c) distinct emotions (pity, envy, admiration, contempt) differentiate the 4 competence-warmth combinations. Stereotypically, (d) status predicts high competence, and competition predicts low warmth. Nine varied samples rated gender, ethnicity, race, class, age, and disability out-groups. Contrary to antipathy models, 2 dimensions mattered, and many stereotypes were mixed, either pitying (low competence, high warmth subordinates) or envying (high competence, low warmth competitors). Stereotypically, status predicted competence, and competition predicted low warmth.

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A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: Competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition.

Confirmation bias, as the term is typically used in the psychological literature, connotes the seeking or interpreting of evidence in ways that are partial to existing beliefs, expectations, or a h...

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Confirmation Bias: A Ubiquitous Phenomenon in Many Guises:

A role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders proposes that perceived incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles leads to 2 forms of prejudice: (a) perceiving women less favorably than men as potential occupants of leadership roles and (b) evaluating behavior that fulfills the prescriptions of a leader role less favorably when it is enacted by a woman. One consequence is that attitudes are less positive toward female than male leaders and potential leaders. Other consequences are that it is more difficult for women to become leaders and to achieve success in leadership roles. Evidence from varied research paradigms substantiates that these consequences occur, especially in situations that heighten perceptions of incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles.

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Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders.

It is a common phenomenon of clinical practice that as a psychologist accumulates casestudy material about another human being, he comes to think that he knows that person pretty well. Consequently, sooner or later in the information-gathering process, the psychologist becomes confident enough to make diagnostic conclusions, describe the client's main dynamics, and perhaps even venture to predict his future behavior. Though the psychologist's conclusions may remain tentative, his increase in confidence from the time of first approaching the case to the time of writing his report is usually very marked. This study investigated whether that increase in confidence is justified by a corresponding increase in accuracy of conclusions. Though the psychologist's confidence in his conclusions has often been mentioned as an important subject of scientific inquiry (Meehl, 1957), it has only rarely been studied intensively. Furthermore, when it has been studied, rather surprising findings have often resulted. For instance, Goldberg (1959) and Oskamp (1962) have shown that the diagnostic confidence of experienced psychologists is less than that of less experienced persons. The same studies and many others have also shown that professional psychologists are no better interpersonal judges, and sometimes are worse 1 Revision of a paper presented at the Western Psychological Association annual meeting, April 18, 1964. Thanks are due to Stanley Lunde for his help in constructing the case-study test. ones, than are untrained individuals (Taft, 1955).

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Overconfidence in case-study judgments.

Variables that predict “green buying” (i.e., buying products that are environmentally beneficial) were investigated. Predictor variables included awareness about environmental impacts of products, specific environmental beliefs of consumers, several general environmental attitude scales, demographic variables, and several proenvironment behaviors other than buying behavior. A written questionnaire, mailed to randomly selected residents of 8 middle-class communities in the Los Angeles area, was answered by 201 respondents. The results of hierarchical multiple regression analyses supported the hypotheses under study: Specific consumer beliefs predicted several green-buying variables as well as general environmental attitudes, whereas general environmental attitudes predicted only one aspect of green buying. Women were significantly higher than men on two aspects of green buying and on the environmental attitude scales. Home ownership was positively related to recycling behavior.

Green Buying: The Influence of Environmental Concern on Consumer Behavior

To investigate factors encouraging or deterring recycling, telephone interviews were used to study recycling behavior, attitudes, and knowledge of 221 randomly selected adults in a suburban city th...

Factors Influencing Household Recycling Behavior

Who recycles and when? A review of personal and situational factors

Contents: Preface. S. Oskamp, Multiple Paths to Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination. Part I: Background Factors Affecting Prejudice. W.S. Stephan, C.W. Stephan, An Integrated Threat Theory of Prejudice. J. Sidanius, R.C. Veniegas, Gender and Race Discrimination: The Interactive Nature of Disadvantage. M.C. Taylor, Social Contextual Strategies for Reducing Racial Discrimination. Part II: Psychological Research on Reducing Prejudice. T.F. Pettigrew, L.R. Tropp, Does Intergroup Contact Reduce Prejudice? Recent Meta-Analytic Findings. S.T. Fiske, Interdependence and the Reduction of Prejudice. J.F. Dovidio, K. Kawakami, S.L. Gaertner, Reducing Contemporary Prejudice: Combating Explicit and Implicit Bias at the Individual and Intergroup Level. M.B. Brewer, Reducing Prejudice Through Cross-Categorization: Effects of Multiple Social Identities. P.G. Devine, E.A. Plant, B.N. Buswell, Breaking the Prejudice Habit: Progress and Obstacles. Part III: Applications in Social Settings. B. Major, W.J. Quinton, S.K. McCoy, T. Schmader, Reducing Prejudice: The Target's Perspective. D.W. Johnson, R.T. Johnson, The Three Cs of Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination. F.E. Aboud, S.R. Levy, Interventions to Reduce Prejudice and Discrimination in Children and Adolescents. M.A. Wittig, L. Molina, Moderators and Mediators of Prejudice Reduction in Multicultural Education. S. Oskamp, J.M. Jones, Promising Practices in Reducing Prejudice: A Report From the President's Initiative on Race.

Stuart Oskamp

Papers

Overconfidence in case-study judgments.

Green Buying: The Influence of Environmental Concern on Consumer Behavior

Factors Influencing Household Recycling Behavior

Who recycles and when? A review of personal and situational factors

Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination