This paper focuses on scoping studies, an approach to reviewing the literature which to date has received little attention in the research methods literature. We distinguish between different types of scoping studies and indicate where these stand in relation to full systematic reviews. We outline a framework for conducting a scoping study based on our recent experiences of reviewing the literature on services for carers for people with mental health problems. Where appropriate, our approach to scoping the field is contrasted with the procedures followed in systematic reviews. We emphasize how including a consultation exercise in this sort of study may enhance the results, making them more useful to policy makers, practitioners and service users. Finally, we consider the advantages and limitations of the approach and suggest that a wider debate is called for about the role of the scoping study in relation to other types of literature reviews.

/pdf/scoping-studies-towards-a-methodological-framework-478hqzmq9l.pdf

Scoping studies: towards a methodological framework

Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques

As qualitative research becomes increasingly recognized and valued, it is imperative that it is conducted in a rigorous and methodical manner to yield meaningful and useful results. To be accepted ...

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1609406917733847

Thematic Analysis: Striving to Meet the Trustworthiness Criteria

A general inductive approach for analysis of qualitative evaluation data is described. The purposes for using an inductive approach are to (a) condense raw textual data into a brief, summary format; (b) establish clear links between the evaluation or research objectives and the summary findings derived from the raw data; and (c) develop a framework of the underlying structure of expe- riences or processes that are evident in the raw data. The general inductive approach provides an easily used and systematic set of procedures for analyzing qualitative data that can produce reliable and valid findings. Although the general inductive approach is not as strong as some other analytic strategies for theory or model development, it does provide a simple, straightforward approach for deriving findings in the context of focused evaluation questions. Many evaluators are likely to find using a general inductive approach less complicated than using other approaches to qualitative data analysis.

/pdf/a-general-inductive-approach-for-analyzing-qualitative-1xoxxy6mp5.pdf

A General Inductive Approach for Analyzing Qualitative Evaluation Data

Qualitative case study methodology provides tools for researchers to study complex phenomena within their contexts. When the approach is applied correctly, it becomes a valuable method for health science research to develop theory, evaluate programs, and develop interventions. The purpose of this paper is to guide the novice researcher in identifying the key elements for designing and implementing qualitative case study research projects. An overview of the types of case study designs is provided along with general recommendations for writing the research questions, developing propositions, determining the “case” under study, binding the case and a discussion of data sources and triangulation. To facilitate application of these principles, clear examples of research questions, study propositions and the different types of case study designs

/pdf/qualitative-case-study-methodology-study-design-and-1k0cisnxrr.pdf

Qualitative Case Study Methodology: Study Design and Implementation for Novice Researchers

This is the second in a series of three articles 

Contrary to popular perception, qualitative research can produce vast amounts of data. These may include verbatim notes or transcribed recordings of interviews or focus groups, jotted notes and more detailed “fieldnotes” of observational research, a diary or chronological account, and the researcher's reflective notes made during the research. These data are not necessarily small scale: transcribing a typical single interview takes several hours and can generate 20–40 pages of single spaced text. Transcripts and notes are the raw data of the research. They provide a descriptive record of the research, but they cannot provide explanations. The researcher has to make sense of the data by sifting and interpreting them.

#### Summary points

Qualitative research produces large amounts of textual data in the form of transcripts and observational fieldnotes

The systematic and rigorous preparation and analysis of these data is time consuming and labour intensive

Data analysis often takes place alongside data collection to allow questions to be refined and new avenues of inquiry to develop

Textual data are typically explored inductively using content analysis to generate categories and explanations; software packages can help with analysis but should not be viewed as short cuts to rigorous and systematic analysis

High quality analysis of qualitative data depends on the skill, vision, and integrity of the researcher; it should not be left to the novice

In much qualitative research the analytical process begins during data collection as the data already gathered are analysed and shape the ongoing data collection. This sequential analysis1 or interim analysis2 has the advantage of allowing the researcher to go back and refine questions, develop hypotheses, and pursue emerging avenues of inquiry in further depth. Crucially, it also enables the researcher to look for deviant or negative cases; that is, …

https://faculty.washington.edu/jelmore/articles_online/Pope-QualResinHC-Ana.pdf

Analysing qualitative data

Objectives To draw on narrative interviews with patients with lung cancer and to explore their perceptions and experience of stigma Design Qualitative study Setting United Kingdom Participants 45 patients with lung cancer recruited through several sources Results Participants experienced stigma commonly felt by patients with other types of cancer, but, whether they smoked or not, they felt particularly stigmatised because the disease is so strongly associated with smoking Interaction with family, friends, and doctors was often affected as a result, and many patients, particularly those who had stopped smoking years ago or had never smoked, felt unjustly blamed for their illness Those who resisted victim blaming maintained that the real culprits were tobacco companies with unscrupulous policies Some patients concealed their illness, which sometimes had adverse financial consequences or made it hard for them to gain support from other people Some indicated that newspaper and television reports may have added to the stigma: television advertisements aim to put young people off tobacco, but they usually portray a dreadful death, which may exacerbate fear and anxiety A few patients were worried that diagnosis, access to care, and research into lung cancer might be adversely affected by the stigma attached to the disease and those who smoke Conclusion Patients with lung cancer report stigmatisation with far reaching consequences Efforts to help people to quit smoking are important, but clinical and educational interventions should be presented with care so as not to add to the stigma experienced by patients with lung cancer and other smoking related diseases

https://www.bmj.com/content/bmj/328/7454/1470.full.pdf

Stigma, shame, and blame experienced by patients with lung cancer: qualitative study.

Objectives This paper outlines an approach to analysing qualitative textual data from interviews and discusses how to ensure analytic procedures are appropriately rigorous.

Overview  Qualitative data analysis should begin at an early stage in data collection and be highly systematic. It is important to identify issues that emerge during the data collection and analysis as well as those that the researcher may have anticipated (from reading or experience). Analysis is very time-consuming, but careful sampling, the collection of rich material and analytic depth mean that a relatively small number of cases can generate insights that apply well beyond the confines of the study. One particular approach to thematic analysis is introduced with examples from the DIPEx (personal experiences of health and illness) project, which collects video- and audio-taped interviews that are freely accessible through http://www.dipex.org.

Evaluation  Qualitative analysis of patients' perspectives of illness can illuminate numerous issues that are important for medical education, some of which are unlikely to arise in the clinical encounter. Qualitative studies can also cover a much broader range of experiences – of both common and rare disease – than clinicians will see in practice. The DIPEx website is based on qualitative analysis of collections of interviews, illustrated with hundreds of video and audio clips, and is an innovative resource for medical education.

Making sense of qualitative data analysis: an introduction with illustrations from DIPEx (personal experiences of health and illness).

https://www.thelancet.com/pdfs/journals/lancet/PIIS0140-6736(02)98858-6.pdf

Effects of fruit and vegetable consumption on plasma antioxidant concentrations and blood pressure: a randomised controlled trial

Objective To explore how men and women with cancer talk about using the internet.

Design Qualitative study using semistructured interviews collected by maximum variation sampling.

Setting Respondents recruited throughout the United Kingdom during 2001-2.

Participants 175 men and women aged 19-83 years, with one of five cancers (prostate, testicular, breast, cervical, or bowel) diagnosed since 1992 and selected to include different stages of treatment and follow up.

Results Internet use, either directly or via friend or family, was widespread and reported by patients at all stages of cancer care, from early investigations to follow up after treatment. Patients used the internet to find second opinions, seek support and experiential information from other patients, interpret symptoms, seek information about tests and treatments, help interpret consultations, identify questions for doctors, make anonymous private inquiries, and raise awareness of the cancer. Patients also used it to check their doctors' advice covertly and to develop an expertise in their cancer. This expertise, reflecting familiarity with computer technology and medical terms, enabled patients to present a new type of “social fitness.”

Conclusion Cancer patients used the internet for a wide range of information and support needs, many of which are unlikely to be met through conventional health care. Serious illness often undermines people's self image as a competent member of society. Cancer patients may use the internet to acquire expertise to display competence in the face of serious illness.

https://www.bmj.com/content/bmj/328/7439/564.full.pdf

Sue Ziebland

Papers

Analysing qualitative data

Stigma, shame, and blame experienced by patients with lung cancer: qualitative study.

Making sense of qualitative data analysis: an introduction with illustrations from DIPEx (personal experiences of health and illness).

Effects of fruit and vegetable consumption on plasma antioxidant concentrations and blood pressure: a randomised controlled trial

How the internet affects patients' experience of cancer: a qualitative study