To revise 1998 recommendations on childhood obesity, an Expert Committee, comprised of representatives from 15 professional organizations, appointed experienced scientists and clinicians to 3 writing groups to review the literature and recommend approaches to prevention, assessment, and treatment. Because effective strategies remain poorly defined, the writing groups used both available evidence and expert opinion to develop the recommendations. Primary care providers should universally assess children for obesity risk to improve early identification of elevated BMI, medical risks, and unhealthy eating and physical activity habits. Providers can provide obesity prevention messages for most children and suggest weight control interventions for those with excess weight. The writing groups also recommend changing office systems so that they support efforts to address the problem. BMI should be calculated and plotted at least annually, and the classification should be integrated with other information such as growth pattern, familial obesity, and medical risks to assess the child’s obesity risk. For prevention, the recommendations include both specific eating and physical activity behaviors, which are likely to promote maintenance of healthy weight, but also the use of patient-centered counseling techniques such as motivational interviewing, which helps families identify their own motivation for making change. For assessment, the recommendations include methods to screen for current medical conditions and for future risks, and methods to assess diet and physical activity behaviors. For treatment, the recommendations propose 4 stages of obesity care; the first is brief counseling that can be delivered in a health care office, and subsequent stages require more time and resources. The appropriateness of higher stages is influenced by a patient’s age and degree of excess weight. These recommendations recognize the importance of social and environmental change to reduce the obesity epidemic but also identify ways healthcare providers and health care systems can be part of broader efforts.

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Expert Committee Recommendations Regarding the Prevention, Assessment, and Treatment of Child and Adolescent Overweight and Obesity: Summary Report

The current evidence suggests that many diet and exercise interventions to prevent obesity in children are not effective in preventing weight gain, but can be effective in promoting a healthy diet and increased physical activity levels.Being very overweight (obese) can cause health, psychological and social problems for children. Children who are obese are more likely to have weight and health problems as adults. Programmes designed to prevent obesity focus on modifying one or more of the factors considered to promote obesity.This review included 22 studies that tested a variety of intervention programmes, which involved increased physical activity and dietary changes, singly or in combination. Participants were under 18 and living in Asia, South America, Europe or North America. There is not enough evidence from trials to prove that any one particular programme can prevent obesity in children, although comprehensive strategies to address dietary and physical activity change, together with psycho-social support and environmental change may help. There was a trend for newer interventions to involve their respective communities and to include evaluations.Future research might usefully assess changes made on behalf of entire populations, such as improvements in the types of foods available at schools and in the availability of safe places to run and play, and should assess health effects and costs over several years.The programmes in this review used different strategies to prevent obesity so direct comparisons were difficult. Also, the duration of the studies ranged from 12 weeks to three years, but most lasted less than a year.

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Interventions for preventing obesity in children

Dietary fiber intake provides many health benefits. However, average fiber intakes for US children and adults are less than half of the recommended levels. Individuals with high intakes of dietary fiber appear to be at significantly lower risk for developing coronary heart disease, stroke, hypertension, diabetes, obesity, and certain gastrointestinal diseases. Increasing fiber intake lowers blood pressure and serum cholesterol levels. Increased intake of soluble fiber improves glycemia and insulin sensitivity in non-diabetic and diabetic individuals. Fiber supplementation in obese individuals significantly enhances weight loss. Increased fiber intake benefits a number of gastrointestinal disorders including the following: gastroesophageal reflux disease, duodenal ulcer, diverticulitis, constipation, and hemorrhoids. Prebiotic fibers appear to enhance immune function. Dietary fiber intake provides similar benefits for children as for adults. The recommended dietary fiber intakes for children and adults are 14 g/1000 kcal. More effective communication and consumer education is required to enhance fiber consumption from foods or supplements.

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Health benefits of dietary fiber

Food choices of adolescents are not consistent with the Dietary Guidelines for Americans. Food intakes tend to be low in fruits, vegetables, and calcium-rich foods and high in fat. Skipping meals is also a concern among adolescents, especially girls. Factors influencing eating behaviors of adolescents need to be better understood to develop effective nutrition interventions to change eating behaviors. This article presents a conceptual model based on social cognitive theory and an ecological perspective for understanding factors that influence adolescent eating behaviors and food choices. In this model, adolescent eating behavior is conceptualized as a function of individual and environmental influences. Four levels of influence are described: individual or intrapersonal influences (eg, psychosocial, biological); social environmental or interpersonal (eg, family and peers); physical environmental or community settings (eg, schools, fast food outlets, convenience stores); and macrosystem or societal (eg, mass media, marketing and advertising, social and cultural norms).

Individual and environmental influences on adolescent eating behaviors.

Breakfast has been labeled the most important meal of the day, but are there data to support this claim? We summarized the results of 47 studies examining the association of breakfast consumption with nutritional adequacy (nine studies), body weight (16 studies), and academic performance (22 studies) in children and adolescents. Breakfast skipping is highly prevalent in the United States and Europe (10% to 30%), depending on age group, population, and definition. Although the quality of breakfast was variable within and between studies, children who reported eating breakfast on a consistent basis tended to have superior nutritional profiles than their breakfast-skipping peers. Breakfast eaters generally consumed more daily calories yet were less likely to be overweight, although not all studies associated breakfast skipping with overweight. Evidence suggests that breakfast consumption may improve cognitive function related to memory, test grades, and school attendance. Breakfast as part of a healthful diet and lifestyle can positively impact children's health and well-being. Parents should be encouraged to provide breakfast for their children or explore the availability of a school breakfast program. We advocate consumption of a healthful breakfast on a daily basis consisting of a variety of foods, especially high-fiber and nutrient-rich whole grains, fruits, and dairy products.

Breakfast Habits, Nutritional Status, Body Weight, and Academic Performance in Children and Adolescents

Reducing Fat in Preschool Meals: Description of the Foodservice Intervention Component of Healthy Start

Trends in dietary intake of sugars of 10-year-old children from 1973 to 1988: The bogalusa heart study

LEARNING OUTCOME: To describe the impact of fat reduction on vitamin and mineral density in the diets of children Twenty-four-hour dietary recalls were collected on 1182 children from four states, with diverse ethnic backgrounds, at baseline (third grade) and again at follow-up (fifth grade). With a 2.4% reduction in total fat intake from baseline levels in the intervention group, small yet significant differences were noted in the mean change of vitamin and mineral intakes per 1000 kcal of intervention vs control group. Mean change in total daily intakes of vitamin B-6 (p

Impact of Fat Reduction on Micronutrient Density of Children's Diets: the Catch Study

Temporal trends in breakfast consumption patterns of 10-year-old children: The Bogalusa Heart Study.

This study examined the effectiveness of school food service and health education interventions in changing nutrient intakes at meals and snacks over a 24-hour period as a secondary analysts of the Child and Adolescent Trial for Cardiovascular Health (CATCH) intervention. Researchers assessed nutrient intakes at baseline and follow-up among children at randomly assigned school--40 control and 56 intervention. The researchers used two groups of interventions: a school-based program [school food service, curriculum, and physical education] (n = 28), and the same schoolbased program plus a family-based component (n = 28). To evaluate the combined effects of the curricula and the Eat Smart School Nutrition Program--the school food service component of CATCH--the researchers examined intakes of school lunch and school breakfast for the two intervention and control conditions. In both interventions, mean intakes of children who consumed school lunch were reduced more in two CATCH-targeted nutrient (total fat and saturated fat) and increased more in carbohydrate than they were among children in control schools or children who did not eat school lunch. To evaluate the effects of the CATCH family intervention in addition to the school-based program, the researchers assessed changes in meals consumed outside of school, such as dinner and snacks. Children in the control and two intervention groups did not differ in their intakes of CATCH-targeted nutrients from those meals, suggesting either the CATCH intervention programs had smaller effects on meals outside of school or that the variability was so great for these meals that there was not enough power to detect differences

Theresa A. Nicklas

Papers

Reducing Fat in Preschool Meals: Description of the Foodservice Intervention Component of Healthy Start

Trends in dietary intake of sugars of 10-year-old children from 1973 to 1988: The bogalusa heart study

Impact of Fat Reduction on Micronutrient Density of Children's Diets: the Catch Study

Temporal trends in breakfast consumption patterns of 10-year-old children: The Bogalusa Heart Study.

The impact of modifying school meals on dietary intakes of school-aged children