Fourth generation biofuel (FGB) uses genetically modified (GM) algae to enhance biofuel production. Although GM algae biofuel is a well-known alternative to fossil fuels, the potential environmental and health-related risks are still of great concern. An evaluation of these concerns and accordingly devising appropriate mitigation strategies to deal with them are important to a successful commercialized production of FGB. While extensive research has been carried out on genetic modification and other technologies that aim to increase the productivity of algae strains, only a handful of them deal with the legislative limitations imposed on exploiting and processing GM algae. This paper examines this legislation and the mitigation strategies to meet potential risks associated with the exploitation and processing of FGB. Open-pond system is an economic solution for large-scale cultivation of microalgae; however, the concern regarding the health and environmental risk of cultivating GM algae and the associated stringent regulations is considered as the main barrier of FGB production. Disposal of the residue is another important issue that should be considered in FGB production. The byproducts obtained from energy extraction step and residual water from the harvesting process may contain plasmid or chromosomal DNA that may cause the risk of lateral gene transfer. Hence an appropriate mitigation practices should be used for replacement of the hazardous water residue and by-products with more environmentally friendly alternatives. The results obtained from several field testing projects for open-environment exploitation of GM algae show that under the various conditions used, there was no apparent proof to support possible horizontal gene transfer in release of GM algae.

Fourth generation biofuel: a review on risks and mitigation strategies

Summary Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) has been developed into a dedicated herbaceous bioenergy crop. Biomass yield is a major target trait for genetic improvement of switchgrass. microRNAs have emerged as a prominent class of gene regulatory factors that has the potential to improve complex traits such as biomass yield. A miR156b precursor was overexpressed in switchgrass. The effects of miR156 overexpression on SQUAMOSA PROMOTER BINDING PROTEIN LIKE (SPL) genes were revealed by microarray and quantitative RT-PCR analyses. Morphological alterations, biomass yield, saccharification efficiency and forage digestibility of the transgenic plants were characterized. miR156 controls apical dominance and floral transition in switchgrass by suppressing its target SPL genes. Relatively low levels of miR156 overexpression were sufficient to increase biomass yield while producing plants with normal flowering time. Moderate levels of miR156 led to improved biomass but the plants were nonflowering. These two groups of plants produced 58%‐101% more biomass yield compared with the control. However, high miR156 levels resulted in severely stunted growth. The degree of morphological alterations of the transgenic switchgrass depends on miR156 level. Compared with floral transition, a lower miR156 level is required to disrupt apical dominance. The improvement in biomass yield was mainly because of the increase in tiller number. Targeted overexpression of miR156 also improved solubilized sugar yield and forage digestibility, and offered an effective approach for transgene containment.

https://www.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1467-7652.2011.00677.x

Overexpression of miR156 in switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) results in various morphological alterations and leads to improved biomass production.

Species Invasions and Extinction: The Future of Native Biodiversity on Islands

Biofuels made from algae are gaining attention as a domestic source of renewable fuel. However, with current technologies, scaling up production of algal biofuels to meet even 5 percent of U.S. transportation fuel needs could create unsustainable demands for energy, water, and nutrient resources. Continued research and development could yield innovations to address these challenges, but determining if algal biofuel is a viable fuel alternative will involve comparing the environmental, economic and social impacts of algal biofuel production and use to those associated with petroleum-based fuels and other fuel sources. Sustainable Development of Algal Biofuels was produced at the request of the U.S. Department of Energy.

Sustainable Development of Algal Biofuels in the United States

http://ssu.ac.ir/cms/fileadmin/user_upload/Mtahghighat/tfood/image/GM_FOOD/Detecting_un-authorized_genetically_modified_organisms__GMOs__and_derived_materials-2012.pdf

Detecting un-authorized genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and derived materials

Regulatory restrictions have increased in recent years on organisms produced using recombinant DNA and asexual gene transfer, a process commonly called genetic engineering or genetic modification. Regulatory agencies have raised special concerns and required additional scrutiny for perennial grasses and woody plants of interest for biofuels; these plants have incomplete domestication, invasive capabilities, and the ability to mate with wild or feral relatives. Regulations on these plants require extremely stringent containment through all phases of research and development, regardless of the source of the gene, the novelty of the trait, or the plants' anticipated economic or environmental benefits. We discuss the extent to which these requirements conflict with the realities of practical crop breeding, and prevent meaningful agronomic and environmental studies, thus hampering—and in most cases, precluding—the use of recombinant DNA breeding methods for perennial crop improvement. We propose regulatory ref...

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Far-reaching Deleterious Impacts of Regulations on Research and Environmental Studies of Recombinant DNA-modified Perennial Biofuel Crops in the United States

This thin book—less than 70 pages of text—succinctly counters every argument made in favor of mandatory labeling of GM foods. Each of these arguments, including the ‘consumer’s right to know,’ enabling consumer choice, and public opinion is systematically analyzed and rebuked. The “consumer’s right to know” argument seems most compelling as, superficially, it seems a truism that people should have a right to know what they are buying. This point appears so self evident that many regulators and politicians around the globe assume it prima facie. However, delving past the surface and more deeply investigating typical market practices shows that this “right” is not upheld in the case of many, if not most, consumer products. There are innumerable examples in the market where consumers are not given full information on a product, apart from a general product description and nutritional composition. This is particularly true for ‘no-name’ products or generic brands. Consumers enjoy a reduced price, with perhaps some reduced quality (but still safe and within certain quality thresholds) in choosing such products, even when the label may only say, for example, “sliced carrots” or “pickled beets.” How many consumers feel the need to know the named varieties of wheat that went into the loaf of bread they are buying? In actuality, even manufacturers cannot answer such a question, as the bread is undoubtedly a composite of dozens of different wheat varieties grown by many different farmers. Specialty breads baked using specific wheat cultivars might seem an exception, but they are segregated products to meet a certain market segment, and they are more expensive than regular bread (which lacks wheat-variety labels).

Thwarting Consumer Choice: The Case Against Mandatory Labeling for Genetically Modified Foods

Contents: Preface Part I: Introduction 1. Transitioning from the Risk Analysis Framework to a Liability Analysis Framework Part II: Liability Assessment 2. Liability Regimes in North America 3. European Liability Regimes 4. International Economic Liability Regimes Part III: Liability Management 5. Patent Policy's Interface with Regulation and Liability 6. Coexistence Strategies and Industrial Stewardship 7. Non-adopter Liabilities within the Agri-Food Industry Part IV: Liability Communication 8. Improving Consumer Confidence 9. Regulatory Strategies for Innovative Technologies and Liability for Plant Molecular Farming Part V: Agriculture, Liability and the Future 10. Synopsis and Important Issues Bibliography Index

Innovation and Liability in Biotechnology: Transnational and Comparative Perspectives

Because of the limitations inherent in conventional breeding of trees and clonally propagated crops, gene editing is of great interest. Dozens of published papers attest to the high efficiency of CRISPR-based systems in clonal crops and trees. The opportunity for “clean” edits is expected to avoid or reduce regulatory burdens in many countries and may improve market acceptance. To date, however, nearly all studies in trees and clonal crops retained all of the gene editing machinery in the genome. Despite high gene editing efficiency, technical and regulatory obstacles are likely to greatly limit progress toward commercial use. Technical obstacles include difficult and slow transformation and regeneration, delayed onset of flowering or clonal systems that make sexual segregation of CRISPR-associated genes difficult, inefficient excision systems to enable removal of functional (protein- or RNA-encoding) transgenic DNA, and narrow host range or limited gene-payload viral systems for efficient transient editing. Regulatory obstacles include those such as in the EU where gene-edited plants are regulated like GMO crops, and the many forms of method-based systems that regulate stringently based on the method vs. product novelty and thus are largely applied to each insertion event. Other major obstacles include the provisions of the Cartagena Protocol with respect to international trade and the need for compliance with the National Environmental Policy Act in the USA. The USDA SECURE act has taken a major step toward a more science- and risk-based—vs. method and insertion event based—system, but much further regulatory and legal innovation is needed in the USA and beyond.

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Thomas P. Redick

Papers

Far-reaching Deleterious Impacts of Regulations on Research and Environmental Studies of Recombinant DNA-modified Perennial Biofuel Crops in the United States

Thwarting Consumer Choice: The Case Against Mandatory Labeling for Genetically Modified Foods

Innovation and Liability in Biotechnology: Transnational and Comparative Perspectives

Gene editing in tree and clonal crops: progress and challenges

Jury Verdict Against Bayer for Liberty Link Rice Breaks New Ground in Biotech Liability