background The current combat operations in Iraq and Afghanistan have involved U.S. military personnel in major ground combat and hazardous security duty. Studies are needed to systematically assess the mental health of members of the armed services who have participated in these operations and to inform policy with regard to the optimal delivery of mental health care to returning veterans. methods We studied members of four U.S. combat infantry units (three Army units and one Marine Corps unit) using an anonymous survey that was administered to the subjects either before their deployment to Iraq (n=2530) or three to four months after their return from combat duty in Iraq or Afghanistan (n=3671). The outcomes included major depression, generalized anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), which were evaluated on the basis of standardized, self-administered screening instruments. results Exposure to combat was significantly greater among those who were deployed to Iraq than among those deployed to Afghanistan. The percentage of study subjects whose responses met the screening criteria for major depression, generalized anxiety, or PTSD was significantly higher after duty in Iraq (15.6 to 17.1 percent) than after duty in Afghanistan (11.2 percent) or before deployment to Iraq (9.3 percent); the largest difference was in the rate of PTSD. Of those whose responses were positive for a mental disorder, only 23 to 40 percent sought mental health care. Those whose responses were positive for a mental disorder were twice as likely as those whose responses were negative to report concern about possible stigmatization and other barriers to seeking mental health care. conclusions This study provides an initial look at the mental health of members of the Army and the Marine Corps who were involved in combat operations in Iraq and Afghanistan. Our findings indicate that among the study groups there was a significant risk of mental health problems and that the subjects reported important barriers to receiving mental health services, particularly the perception of stigma among those most in need of such care.

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Combat duty in Iraq and Afghanistan, mental health problems, and barriers to care.

The detection of psychiatric illness by questionnaire

Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling (2nd ed.)

Building on Kahn’ s (1990) ethnographic work, a e eld study in a U.S. Midwestern insurance company explored the determinants and mediating effects of three psychological conditions ‐ meaningfulness, safety and availability ‐ on employees’ engagement in their work. Results from the revised theoretical framework revealed that all three psychological conditions exhibited signie cant positive relations with engagement. Meaningfulness displayed the strongest relation. Job enrichment and work role e t were positively linked to psychological meaningfulness. Rewarding co-worker and supportive supervisor relations were positively associated with psychological safety, whereas adherence to co-worker norms and self-consciousness were negatively associated. Psychological availability was positively related to resources available and negatively related to participation in outside activities. Finally, the relations of job enrichment and work role e t with engagement were both fully mediated by the psychological condition of meaningfulness. The association between adherence to co-worker norms and engagement was partially mediated by psychological safety. Theoretical and practical implications related to psychological engagement at work are discussed. To explore the challenge to the human soul in organizations is to build a bridge between the world of the personal, subjective, and even unconscious elements of individual experience and the world of organizations that demand rationality, efficiency, and personal sacrifice . . . we must be willing to shift our viewpoint back and forth between what organizations want of people and what constitutes human complexity: the contradictory nature of human needs, desires, and experience. (Briskin, 1998, p. xii.) This quote from Briskin (1998), an organizational consultant, reflects the challenges that managers and researchers of organizations face as they seek to understand and

The psychological conditions of meaningfulness, safety and availability and the engagement of the human spirit at work

Research on organizational diversity, heterogeneity, and related concepts has proliferated in the past decade, but few consistent findings have emerged. We argue that the construct of diversity requires closer examination. We describe three distinctive types of diversity: separation, variety, and disparity. Failure to recognize the meaning, maximum shape, and assumptions underlying each type has held back theory development and yielded ambiguous research conclusions. We present guidelines for conceptualization, measurement, and theory testing, highlighting the special case of demographic diversity

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What's the difference? Diversity constructs as separation, variety, or disparity in organizations.

Preface Chapter 1 Introduction To Organizational Psychology What Is Organizational Psychology? Organizational Psychology In Context The Scientist-Practitioner Approach Historical Influences In Organizational Psychology Recent Past And Beyond The Chapter Sequence Chapter Summary Suggested Additional Readings Chapter 2 Research Methods And Statistics Methods Of Data Collection Special Issues In Data Collection Special Issues In Data Collection Statistical Methods In Organizational Psychology Chapter Summary Suggested Additional Readings Chapter 3 Attraction And Socialization The Recruitment Process: An Organizational Perspective The Recruitment Process: The Applicant's Perspective Organizational Socialization The Impact Of Diversity On Organizational Socialization Chapter Summary Suggested Additional Readings Chapter 4 Productive Behavior In Organizations Defining Productive Behavior Organizational Citizenship Behavior Innovation In Organizations Chapter Summary Suggested Additional Readings Chapter 5 Job Satisfaction And Organizational Commitment Job Satisfaction Organizational Commitment Chapter Summary Suggested Additional Readings Chapter 6 Counterproductive Behavior In Organizations Defining Counterproductive Behavior Ineffective Job Performance Employee Absenteeism Employee Turnover Less Common Forms Of Counterproductive Behavior Chapter Summary Suggested Additional Readings Chapter 7 Occupational Stress A Brief History Approaches And Terminology Occupational Stress Terminology Occupational Stress Models Workplace Stressors Reducing The Impact Of Workplace Stressors Cross-Cultural Occupational Stress Research Chapter Summary Suggested Additional Readings Chapter 8 Theories Of Motivation Defining Motivation And Theoretical Approaches Need-Based Theory Of Motivation Cognitive Process Theory Of Motivation Self-Determination Theory Job-Based Theories Of Motivation The Practical Value Of Motivation Theories Chapter Summary Suggested Additional Readings Chapter 9 Organizational Applications Of Motivation Theory Some Basic Assumptions Behaviors Organizations Attempt To Influence Organizational Reward Systems Motivation Through The Design Of Work Organizational Disciplinary Procedures Chapter Summary Suggested Additional Readings Chapter 10 Leadership And Influence Processes Defining Leadership General Approaches To Leadership Modern Theories Of Leadership Power And Influence In Organizations Chapter Summary Suggested Additional Readings Chapter 11 Introduction To Group Behavior Why Do People Join Groups? Defining Characteristics Of Groups Group Structure Stages Of Group Development Inter-Group Dynamics And Behavior Types Of Inter-Group Interactions Predictors Of Inter-Group Interaction Patterns Inter-Group Conflict Improving Quality Of Inter-Group Relations Chapter Summary Suggested Additional Readings Chapter 12 Team Effectiveness Defining Team Effectiveness Models Of Team Effectiveness Determinants Of Team Effectiveness Enhancing The Effectiveness Of Teams The Future Of Teams In Organizations Chapter Summary Suggested Additional Readings Chapter 13 Organizational Theory And Design What Is An "Organizational Theory"? Major Organizational Theories Determinants Of Organizational Design Recent Innovations In Organizational Design Research On Organizational Design The Future Of Organizational Design Chapter Summary Suggested Additional Readings Chapter 14 Organizational Culture Defining Organizational Culture Models Of Organizational Culture Manifestations Of Organizational Culture The Development Of Organizational Culture Measuring Organizational Culture Changing Organizational Culture The Impact Of Organizational Culture Chapter Summary Suggested Additional Readings Chapter 15 Organizational Change And Development What Is Organizational Development And Why Is It Used? A Brief History Of Organizational Development The Theory Base Of Organizational Development Organizational Change Interventions Conditions Necessary For Successful Organizational Change Evaluation Of Organizational Development Programs Special Issues In Client -- Consultant Relationships Chapter Summary Suggested Additional Readings References Author Index Subject Index

Organizational Psychology : A Scientist-Practitioner Approach

Responsibility acts as a psychological adhesive that connects an actor to an event and to relevant prescriptions that should govern conduct. People are held responsible to the extent that (a) a clear, well-defined set of prescriptions is applicable to an event (prescription-event link); (b) the actor is perceived to be bound by the prescriptions by virtue of his or her identity (prescription-identity link); and (c) the actor is connected to the event, especially by virtue of appearing to have personal control over it (identity-event link). Studies supported the model, showing that attributions of responsibility are a direct function of the combined strengths of the 3 linkages (Study 1) and that, when judging responsibility, people seek out information that is relevant to the linkages (Study 2). The model clarifies prior multiple meanings of responsibility and provides a coherent framework for understanding social judgment.

The triangle model of responsibility.

The present review addresses the perceived stigma associated with admitting a mental health problem and seeking help for that problem in the military. Evidence regarding the public stigma associated with mental disorders is reviewed, indicating that the public generally holds negative stereotypes toward individuals with psychological problems, leading to potential discrimination toward these individuals. The internalization of these negative beliefs results in self-stigma, leading to reduced self-esteem and motivation to seek help. Even if soldiers form an intention to seek help for their psychological difficulty, barriers to mental health care may prevent the soldier from receiving the help they need. An overall model is proposed to illustrate how the stigma associated with psychological problems can prevent soldiers getting needed help for psychological difficulties and proposed interventions for reducing stigma in a civilian context are considered for military personnel.

The stigma of mental health problems in the military.

This research explored the relationship between the meaningfulness of work, personality hardiness, and deriving long-term benefits from a stressful event. U.S. soldiers participating in a peacekeeping mission to Bosnia completed measures assessing the meaning of their work and personality hardiness midway through a 1-year deployment (mid-deployment) and completed a measure of deriving benefits from the deployment 4-5 months after it was over (postdeployment). Structural equation modeling revealed that personality hardiness was associated with being engaged in meaningful work during the deployment, which was strongly associated with deriving benefits from the deployment months after it was over. Enriching experiences were also associated with deriving benefits from the deployment. Discussion focuses on the linkages between personality processes, meaningful work, and deriving benefits from a stressful experience.

Deriving benefits from stressful events: the role of engagement in meaningful work and hardiness.

Stigma and organizational barriers have been identified as factors for why a small proportion of soldiers with psychological problems seek professional help. In this article, we examine the impact of negative attitudes toward treatment on treatment seeking among soldiers previously deployed to Afghanistan or Iraq (n = 2,623). We asked soldiers with psychological problems questions about stigma, organizational barriers, negative attitudes toward treatment, and whether they sought treatment for their psychological problems. We found that negative attitudes about treatment inversely predicted treatment seeking. These results provide a more comprehensive examination of reasons that soldiers do not seek needed treatment and highlight the need for policy aimed at reducing negative attitudes toward mental health treatment.

Thomas W. Britt

Papers

Organizational Psychology : A Scientist-Practitioner Approach

The triangle model of responsibility.

The stigma of mental health problems in the military.

Deriving benefits from stressful events: the role of engagement in meaningful work and hardiness.

Stigma, Negative Attitudes About Treatment, and Utilization of Mental Health Care Among Soldiers