Hundreds of different types of coatings are used to protect a variety of structural engineering materials from corrosion, wear, and erosion, and to provide lubrication and thermal insulation. Of all these, thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) have the most complex structure and must operate in the most demanding high-temperature environment of aircraft and industrial gas-turbine engines. TBCs, which comprise metal and ceramic multilayers, insulate turbine and combustor engine components from the hot gas stream, and improve the durability and energy efficiency of these engines. Improvements in TBCs will require a better understanding of the complex changes in their structure and properties that occur under operating conditions that lead to their failure. The structure, properties, and failure mechanisms of TBCs are herein reviewed, together with a discussion of current limitations and future opportunities.

http://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/296/5566/280.full.pdf

Thermal Barrier Coatings for Gas-Turbine Engine Applications

1. Introduction 2. The physical metallurgy of nickel and its alloys 3. Single crystal superalloys for blade applications 4. Superalloys for turbine disc applications 5. Environmental degradation: the role of coatings 6. Summary and future trends.

The Superalloys: Fundamentals and Applications

Preface Introduction Conventional Coplanar Waveguide Conductor-Backed Coplanar Waveguide Coplanar Waveguide with Finite-Width Ground Planes Coplanar Waveguide Suspended Inside A Conducting Enclosure Coplanar Striplines Microshield Lines and Coupled Coplanar Waveguide Attenuation Characteristics of Conventional, Micromachined, and Superconducting Coplanar Waveguides Coplanar Waveguide Discontinuities and Circuit Elements Coplanar Waveguide Transitions Directional Couplers, Hybrids, and Magic-Ts Coplanar Waveguide Applications References Index

Coplanar waveguide circuits, components, and systems

Zirconia ceramics have found broad applications in a variety of energy and biomedical applications because of their unusual combination of strength, fracture toughness, ionic conductivity, and low thermal conductivity. These attractive characteristics are largely associated with the stabilization of the tetragonal and cubic phases through alloying with aliovalent ions. The large concentration of vacancies introduced to charge compensate of the aliovalent alloying is responsible for both the exceptionally high ionic conductivity and the unusually low, and temperature independent, thermal conductivity. The high fracture toughness exhibited by many of zirconia ceramics is attributed to the constraint of the tetragonal-to-monoclinic phase transformation and its release during crack propagation. In other zirconia ceramics containing the tetragonal phase, the high fracture toughness is associated with ferroelastic domain switching. However, many of these attractive features of zirconia, especially fracture toughness and strength, are compromised after prolonged exposure to water vapor at intermediate temperatures (∼30°–300°C) in a process referred to as low-temperature degradation (LTD), and initially identified over two decades ago. This is particularly so for zirconia in biomedical applications, such as hip implants and dental restorations. Less well substantiated is the possibility that the same process can also occur in zirconia used in other applications, for instance, zirconia thermal barrier coatings after long exposure at high temperature. Based on experience with the failure of zirconia femoral heads, as well as studies of LTD, it is shown that many of the problems of LTD can be mitigated by the appropriate choice of alloying and/or process control.

The Tetragonal-Monoclinic Transformation in Zirconia: Lessons Learned and Future Trends

Gas-turbine engines used in transportation, energy, and defense sectors rely on high-temperature thermal-barrier coatings (TBCs) for improved efficiencies and power. The promise of still higher efficiencies and other benefits is driving TBCs research and development worldwide. An introduction to TBCs—complex, multi-layer evolving systems—is presented, where these fascinating systems touch on several known phenomena in materials science and engineering. Critical elements identified as being important to the development of future TBCs form the basis for the five articles in this issue of MRS Bulletin. These articles are introduced, together with a discussion of the major challenges to improved coating development and the rich opportunities for materials research they provide.

https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1557/mrs.2012.232.pdf

Thermal-barrier coatings for more efficient gas-turbine engines

Some recent trends in research and technology of advanced thermal barrier coatings

Thermal-barrier coatings (TBCs) are complex, defected, thick films made of zirconia-based refractory ceramic oxides. Their widespread applicability has necessitated development of high throughput, low cost materials manufacturing technologies. Thermal plasmas and electron beams have been the primary energy sources for processing of such systems. Electron-beam physical vapor deposition (EBPVD) is a sophisticated TBC fabrication technology for rotating parts of aero engine components, while atmospheric plasma sprays (APS) span the range from rotating blades of large power generation turbines to afterburners in supersonic propulsion engines. This article presents a scientific description of both contemporary manufacturing processes (EBPVD, APS) and emerging TBC deposition technologies based on novel extensions to plasma technology (suspension spray, plasma spray-PVD) to facilitate novel compliant and low thermal conductivity coating architectures. TBCs are of vital importance to both performance and energy efficiency of modern turbines with concomitant needs in process control for both advanced design and reliable manufacturing.

Processing science of advanced thermal-barrier systems

Development of electron beam physical vapor deposited (EB-PVD) thermal barrier coatings (TBC) aims at low conductivity, increased temperature capability, and longer life. Considerable progress has been achieved by comprehensive understanding of the evolvement of the porous microstructure in columnar ceramic topcoats and its application to tailoring optimized micro-structures. New ceramic compositions such as alternative stabilizers in zirconia, hafnia modified coatings, and pyrochlores are addressed. They have demonstrated their potential for future TBC applications. New results of both microstructure and chemistry are presented together with a summary of recent research results.

Review on Advanced EB-PVD Ceramic Topcoats for TBC Applications

The present paper summarizes the main results generated in a German National Science Foundation (DFG) program on projects concerned with functionally graded materials applied to optimize the thermal, wear and corrosion properties of metallic and ceramic materials. Thermal barrier coatings deposited onto Cu substrates by pulsed laser deposition showed improved spallation behavior by a graded lamella microstructure with improved interface fracture toughness. A particle-hardened graded surface structure improved the wear resistance of plasma sprayed thermal barriers. By means of evaporation techniques a graded bonding area was manufactured with a high potential of lifetime improvement. For non-oxide ceramics graded coatings based on Si 3 N 4 and mullite led to improved oxidation resistance of the substrate material. Graded TiC–TiN thin films allowed to improve the wear resistance of cutting tool alloys with good adhesion to the substrate material. On light metal alloys, the limits of grading with respect to corrosion protection as well as wear were determined. Graded layers of arc-sprayed titanium with in situ produced particles or welded alloy gradients led to improved wear characteristics. Stress profiles in graded layers were analyzed with the help of a modified X-ray diffraction analysis.

Graded coatings for thermal, wear and corrosion barriers

Electron-beam physical-vapor-deposited thermal barrier coatings consisting of ZrO 2 stabilized by 7 wt% Y 2 O 3 were investigated in regard to phase transformation after annealing. Free-standing ceramic layers were heat-treated in air, for up to 200 h, in the temperature range 1200°-1400°C and then analyzed by X-ray diffractometry. Based on information obtained from the {111} and {400} peaks, the phase composition and the Y 2 O 3 content in the phases were calculated. At the start of transformation, small grains of a low-Y 2 O 3 t phase and a c phase formed. After >30 h at 1300°C and at 1400°C, a mixture of a t phase deficient in Y 2 O 3 , an m phase, and a c phase formed after cooling, with the Y 2 O 3 contents in the phases roughly predicted by the phase diagrams. The results of the present study are discussed here in detail and compared with data for plasma-sprayed coatings.

Uwe Schulz

Papers

Some recent trends in research and technology of advanced thermal barrier coatings

Processing science of advanced thermal-barrier systems

Review on Advanced EB-PVD Ceramic Topcoats for TBC Applications

Graded coatings for thermal, wear and corrosion barriers

Phase Transformation in EB-PVD Yttria Partially Stabilized Zirconia Thermal Barrier Coatings During Annealing