Simple Summary The presented manuscript provides the first data about the important zoonotic disease, brucellosis, in the population of wild boars on the territory of Serbia. Brucellosis is an important disease of animals, both domestic and wild, and humans, and is of exceptional importance. Recently, the disease has re-emerged in some countries and is a threat to public health. The infection was never investigated before in the population of wild boars in Serbia, although the reported infections in domestic pigs indicate the possible pathogen transmission from wild to domestic pigs. Applied serology assays provided Brucella seroprevalences in wild boars, while a wealth of statistics delivered important data. The obtained results confirm the presence of the infection in the population of wild boars in Serbia and open new chapters for the future investigations of brucellosis in wild boars in Serbia. Abstract Brucellosis is one of the most important bacterial zoonotic diseases worldwide, characterized in domestic animals by long-term reproductive disorders. As known, wild boars (Sus scrofa) are natural hosts for Brucella suis biovar 2, in which the infection passes in inapparent form, increasing the pathogen transmission risk to domestic pigs, other domestic animals and humans. So far, no studies regarding brucellosis in wild boars in Serbia have been published. During the hunting season 2020/2021, 480 sera of wild boars living in Serbia were collected and tested for the presence of anti-Brucella antibodies. For the serological survey, the Rose Bengal Test (RBT) and competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (c-ELISA) were used. Of the 480 sera, 45 sera tested positive, indicating the acquired Brucella seroprevalence in wild boars of 9.4%. The greatest numbers of Brucella seropositive animals were detected in the eastern parts of the country and in one of the central districts, i.e., Pomoravski, Branicevski, Borski and Juznobanatski. This study provides the first data regarding brucellosis in the wild boar population in Serbia, revealing the seroprevalence of Brucella, thus indicating that wild boars as natural hosts and/or vectors of Brucella likely present a risk for the infection of other animals.

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First Report of Brucella Seroprevalence in Wild Boar Population in Serbia

The first case of African swine fever in domestic pigs in Serbia was in 2019. The following year, the disease was confirmed in wild boar. Thenceforth, ASF has been continuously reported in both wild and domestic pigs. The outbreaks in domestic pigs could not be linked directly to wild boars, even though wild boars were endemically infected, and reservoirs for ASF. This study aimed to investigate outbreaks and routes of transmission in domestic pigs in a region of central Serbia where no outbreaks in wild boar were reported. Fourteen outbreaks of ASF on backyard farms with low biosecurity were traced back, and no connection to wild boar was found. The epidemic investigation covered 2094 holdings, with 24,368 pigs, out of which 1882 were tested for ASF. In surrounding hunting grounds, field searches were conducted. Dead wild boars were found, and 138 hunted wild boars were negative for ASFV. It was concluded that outbreaks in 2021 were provoked by the illegal trade of live animals and pig products. Even though infective pressure from wild boars is assumed, no positive cases have been found, while the ASFV spreads within the domestic swine population evidenced in four recent outbreaks in 2022.

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Patterns of ASFV Transmission in Domestic Pigs in Serbia

The wild boar (Sus scrofa L., 1758) is one of the most common and widespread game species not only in the Baltic Sea region but also throughout its entire range. However, quantitative population management is required due to the danger of contagious diseases; the census is imprecise, and integrated management and monitoring are still missing in Lithuania. This study focused on the current condition of the wild boar population at the country level, species activity in forests and adjacent agricultural lands, the problem of damage to agriculture and forestry caused by wild boar, and methods for the management of the wild boar population. A methodology for the assessment of the effect of wild boar will help in reducing their impact. For the successful management of wild boar, an increase in the carrying capacity in conformity with animal density should be accomplished.

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Effect of Wild Boar (Sus scrofa L.) on Forests, Agricultural Lands and Population Management in Lithuania

African swine fever (ASF) is a highly contagious disease affecting all suids and wild boar (Sus scrofa). Since 2007, ASF has spread to more than 30 countries in Europe and Asian regions, and the most recent outbreak has been in mainland Italy (reported on January 2022). When the genotype II of the ASF virus infects a population, a mortality rate close to 90% is usually reported. This drop in wild boar abundance produces a cascade effect in the entire ecosystem. In this context, effective monitoring tools for deriving management parameters are a priority aspect, and the utility of camera trapping could have been overlooked. Here, sampling the infected area in north Italy, we showed the utility of camera traps in the context of ASF infection. Specifically, we used 43 camera traps randomly distributed to (i) estimate movement parameters and population density of wild boar, roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), and wolf (Canis lupus); (ii) quantify wild boar recruitment; and (iii) assess whether the human restriction rules are being met. On the first spring after the outbreak detection, our results for wild boar indicated a density of 0.27 ind·km−2 ± 0.11 (standard error, SE), a daily activity level of 0.49 ± 0.07 (i.e., 11.76 h·day−1), a daily distance travelled of 9.07 ± 1.80 km·day−1, a litter size of 1.72 piglets·group−1, and a 72% of pregnant females. Despite human outdoor activities being restricted in the infected zone, we recorded human presence in 19 camera traps. The wide range of parameters estimated from the camera trap data, together with some intrinsic and practical advantages of this tool, allows us to conclude that camera traps are well positioned to be a reference approach to monitor populations affected by ASF. The population-specific parameters are of prime importance for optimizing ASF control efforts.

https://downloads.hindawi.com/journals/tbed/2023/7820538.pdf

Not Just Pictures: Utility of Camera Trapping in the Context of African Swine Fever and Wild Boar Management

Simple Summary Wildlife monitoring plans are not uniformly applied in all European countries, even if the World Organization for Animal Health (WOAH) identified passive surveillance of wildlife as the strategy of choice to investigate the health status of wild animals. The plan in use in the Emilia-Romagna region (Northern Italy) for the past 11 years has allowed for the collection of a large amount of data on the wild boar population. Research has been conducted on diseases for which the wild boar could be a reservoir and/or source of infection for domestic pigs due to their increasingly frequent interfaces (trichinellosis, tuberculosis, brucellosis, african swine fever, classical swine fever, Aujeszky’s disease, swine vesicular disease, and swine influenza A). Although the results do not allow us to make inferences about the resident population due to the sampling method and sample size, they still give us some indications about the strengths and weaknesses of the plan itself. For instance, an active search for carcasses on the territory should be implemented. In order to improve surveillance activities, it would also be desirable to increase the harmonization of sample collection schemes and data organization from a One Health perspective, as recommended by the WOAH. Abstract In recent years, the growth of wild ungulates has increased the focus on their health monitoring. In particular, the health status of wild boars is relevant for the economic impact on the pig industry. The Emilia-Romagna region activated a wildlife monitoring plan to better evaluate the health status of the wild boar population. Between 2011 and 2021, samples of found dead and hunted wild boar have been examined for trichinellosis, tuberculosis, brucellosis, african swine fever, classical swine fever, Aujeszky’s disease, swine vesicular disease, and swine influenza A. Trichinella britovi was identified in 0.001% of the examined wild boars; neither M. bovis nor M. tuberculosis were found in M. tuberculosis complex positive samples; 2.3% were positive for Brucella suis; 29.4% of the sera were positive for Aujeszky’s disease virus; and 0.9% of the samples were positive for swine influenza A virus. With an uncertain population estimate, the number of animals tested, the number of positives, and the sampling method do not allow us to make many inferences but suggest the need to implement and strengthen the existing surveillance activity, as it seems to be the only viable alternative for safeguarding animal and human health.

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Eleven Years of Health Monitoring in Wild Boars (Sus scrofa) in the Emilia-Romagna Region (Italy)

This report presents the results of field activities in relation to the generation of reliable wild boar density values by camera trapping (CT) in 19 areas in Europe, mainly in East Europe. Random Encounter Model (REM) densities ranged from 0.35±0.24 to 15.25±2.41 (SE) individuals/km 2 . No statistical differences in density among bioregions were found. The number of contacts was the component of the trapping rate that determined the coefficient of variation (CV) the most. The daily range (DR) significantly varied as a function of management; the higher values were detected in hunting grounds compared to protected areas, indicating that movement parameters are population specific, and confirming the potential role of hunting activities in increasing wild boar movement and contact rates among individual or groups. The results presented in this report illustrate that a harmonized approach to actual wildlife density estimation (namely for terrestrial mammals) is possible at a European scale, sharing the same protocols, collaboratively designing the study, processing, and analysing the data. This report adds reliable wild boar density values that have the potential to be used for wild boar abundance spatial modelling, both directly or to calibrate outputs of model based on abundance (such as hunting bags) or occurrence data. Future REM developments should focus on improving the precision of estimates (probably through increased survey effort). Next steps require an exhaustive and representative design of a monitoring network to estimate reliable trends of wild boar populations as a function of different factors in Europe. In this regard, the newly created European Observatory of Wildlife will be a network of observation points provided by collaborators from all European countries capable to monitor wildlife population at European level.

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V. Aleksovski

Papers

Wild boar density data generated by camera trapping in nineteen European areas