Over the last decade, cadmium telluride (CdTe) and cadmium zinc telluride (CdZnTe) wide band gap semiconductors have attracted increasing interest as X-ray and gamma ray detectors. Among the traditional high performance spectrometers based on silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge), CdTe and CdZnTe detectors show high detection efficiency and good room temperature performance and are well suited for the development of compact and reliable detection systems. In this paper, we review the current status of research in the development of CdTe and CdZnTe detectors by a comprehensive survey on the material properties, the device characteristics, the different techniques for improving the overall detector performance and some major applications. Astrophysical and medical applications are discussed, pointing out the ongoing Italian research activities on the development of these detectors.

https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/9/5/3491/pdf?view=inline

Progress in the Development of CdTe and CdZnTe Semiconductor Radiation Detectors for Astrophysical and Medical Applications

X-ray polarimetry, sometimes alone, and sometimes coupled to spectral and temporal variability measurements and to imaging, allows a wealth of physical phenomena in astrophysics to be studied. X-ray polarimetry investigates the acceleration process, for example, including those typical of magnetic reconnection in solar flares, but also emission in the strong magnetic fields of neutron stars and white dwarfs. It detects scattering in asymmetric structures such as accretion disks and columns, and in the so-called molecular torus and ionization cones. In addition, it allows fundamental physics in regimes of gravity and of magnetic field intensity not accessible to experiments on the Earth to be probed. Finally, models that describe fundamental interactions (e.g. quantum gravity and the extension of the Standard Model) can be tested. We describe in this paper the X-ray Imaging Polarimetry Explorer (XIPE), proposed in June 2012 to the first ESA call for a small mission with a launch in 2017. The proposal was, unfortunately, not selected. To be compliant with this schedule, we designed the payload mostly with existing items. The XIPE proposal takes advantage of the completed phase A of POLARIX for an ASI small mission program that was cancelled, but is different in many aspects: the detectors, the presence of a solar flare polarimeter and photometer and the use of a light platform derived by a mass production for a cluster of satellites. XIPE is composed of two out of the three existing JET-X telescopes with two Gas Pixel Detectors (GPD) filled with a He-DME mixture at their focus. Two additional GPDs filled with a 3-bar Ar-DME mixture always face the Sun to detect polarization from solar flares. The Minimum Detectable Polarization of a 1 mCrab source reaches 14 % in the 2–10 keV band in 105 s for pointed observations, and 0.6 % for an X10 class solar flare in the 15–35 keV energy band. The imaging capability is 24 arcsec Half Energy Width (HEW) in a Field of View of 14.7 arcmin × 14.7 arcmin. The spectral resolution is 20 % at 6 keV and the time resolution is 8 μs. The imaging capabilities of the JET-X optics and of the GPD have been demonstrated by a recent calibration campaign at PANTER X-ray test facility of the Max-Planck-Institut fur extraterrestrische Physik (MPE, Germany). XIPE takes advantage of a low-earth equatorial orbit with Malindi as down-link station and of a Mission Operation Center (MOC) at INPE (Brazil). The data policy is organized with a Core Program that comprises three months of Science Verification Phase and 25 % of net observing time in the following 2 years. A competitive Guest Observer program covers the remaining 75 % of the net observing time.

XIPE: the X-ray imaging polarimetry explorer

The XMM-Newton Observatory is a cornerstone mission of the European Space Agency's Horizon 2000 programme, and is the largest scientific satellite it has launched to date. This paper summarises the principal characteristics of the Observatory which are pertinent to scientific operations. The scientific results appearing in this issue have been enabled by the unprecedentedly large effective area of the three mirror modules, which are briefly described. The in-orbit performance and preliminary calibrations of the observatory are briefly summarised. The observations from the XMM-Newton calibration and performance verification phase, which are public and from which most papers in this issue have been derived, are listed. The flow of data from the spacecraft, through the ground segment, to the production of preliminary science products supplied to users is also discussed.

XMM-Newton observatory*: I. The spacecraft and operations. Commentary

The Max-Planck-Institut fur extraterrestrische Physik (MPE) in Garching, Germany, uses its large X-ray beam line facility PANTER for testing X-ray astronomical instrumentation. A number of telescopes, gratings, filters, and detectors, e.g. for astronomical satellite missions like Exosat, ROSAT, Chandra (LETG), BeppoSAX, SOHO (CDS), XMM-Newton, ABRIXAS, Swift (XRT), have been successfully calibrated in the soft X-ray energy range (<15keV). Moreover, measurements with mirror test samples for new missions like ROSITA and XEUS have been carried out at PANTER. Here we report on an extension of the energy range, enabling calibrations of hard X-ray optics over the energy range 15–50 keV. Several future X-ray astronomy missions (e.g., Simbol-X, Constellation-X, XEUS) have been proposed, which make use of hard X-ray optics based on multilayer coatings. Such optics are currently being developed by the Osservatorio Astronomico di Brera (OAB), Milano, Italy, and the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics (CfA), Cambridge, MA, USA. These optics have been tested at the PANTER facility with a broad energy band beam (up to 50 keV) using the XMM-Newton EPIC-pn flight spare CCD camera with its good intrinsic energy resolution, and also with monochromatic X-rays between C-K (0.277 keV) and Cu-Kα (8.04 keV).

The MPE X-ray test facility PANTER: Calibration of hard X-ray (15–50 kev) optics

The Gas Pixel Detector belongs to the very limited class of gas detectors optimized for the measurement of X-ray polarization in the emission of astrophysical sources. The choice of the mixture in which X-ray photons are absorbed and photoelectrons propagate, deeply affects both the energy range of the instrument and its performance in terms of gain, track dimension and ultimately, polarimetric sensitivity. Here we present the characterization of the Gas Pixel Detector with a 1 cm thick cell filled with dimethyl ether (DME) at 0.79 atm, selected among other mixtures for the very low diffusion coefficient. Almost completely polarized and monochromatic photons were produced at the calibration facility built at INAF/IASF-Rome exploiting Bragg diffraction at nearly 45 degrees. For the first time ever, we measured the modulation factor and the spectral capabilities of the instrument at energies as low as 2.0 key, but also at 2.6, 3.7, 4.0, 5.2 and 7.8 key. These measurements cover almost completely the energy range of the instrument and allows to compare the sensitivity achieved with that of the standard mixture, composed of helium and DME. (C) 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Spectral and polarimetric characterization of the Gas Pixel Detector filled with dimethyl ether

The Constellation-X mission, planned for launch in 2011, will feature an array of hard-x ray telescopes with a total collecting area goal of 1500 square centimeters at 40 keV. Various technologies are currently being investigated for the optics of these telescopes including multilayer-coated Eletroformed-Nickel-Replicated (ENR) shells. The attraction of the ENR process is that the resulting full-shell optics are inherently stable and offer the promise of good angular resolution and enhanced instrument sensitivity. The challenge for this process is to meet a relatively tight weight budget with a relatively dense material (rho nickel = 9 grams per cubic centimeters.) To demonstrate the viability of the ENR process we are fabricating a prototype HXT mirror module to be tested against a competing segmented-glass-shell optic. The ENR prototype will consist of 5 shells of diameters from 150 mm to 280 mm and of 426 mm total length. To meet the stringent weight budget for Con-X, the shells will be only 150 micron thick. The innermost of these will be coated with Iridium, while the remainder will be coated with graded-density multilayers. Mandrels for these shells are currently under fabrication (Jan 03), with the first shells scheduled for production in February 03. A tentative date of late Summer has been set for prototype testing. Issues currently being addressed are the control of stresses in the multiplayer coating and ways of mitigating their effects on the figure of the necessarily thin shells. Also, the fabrication, handling and mounting of these shells without inducing permanent figure distortions. A full status report on the prototype optic will be presented along with test results as available.

Development of a prototype nickel optic for the Constellation-X hard x-ray telescope

The Wide Field X-ray Telescope (WFXT) is a medium class mission for X-ray surveys of the sky with an unprecedented
area and sensitivity. In order to meet the effective area requirement, the design of the optical system is based on very thin
mirror shells, with thicknesses in the 1-2 mm range. In order to get the desired angular resolution (10 arcsec requirement,
5 arcsec goal) across the entire 1x1 degree FOV (Field Of View), the design of the optical system is based on nested
modified grazing incidence Wolter-I mirrors realized with polynomial profiles, focal plane curvature and plate scale
corrections. This design guarantees an increased angular resolution at large off-axis angle with respect to the normally
used Wolter I configuration, making WFXT ideal for survey purposes. The WFXT X-ray Telescope Assembly is
composed by three identical mirror modules of 78 nested shells each, with diameter up to 1.1 m. The epoxy replication
process with SiC shells has already been proved to be a valuable technology to meet the angular resolution requirement
of 10 arcsec. To further mature the telescope manufacturing technology and to achieve the goal of 5 arcsec, a
deterministic direct polishing method is under investigation. The direct polishing method has already been used for past
missions (as Einstein, Rosat, Chandra): the technological challenge now is to apply it for almost ten times thinner shells.
Under investigation is quartz glass (fused silica), a well-known material with good thermo-mechanical and polishability
characteristics that could meet our goal in terms of mass and stiffness, with significant cost and time saving with respect
to SiC. Our approach is based on two main steps: first quartz glass tubes available on the market are grinded to conical
profiles, and second the obtained shells are polished to the required polynomial profiles by CNC (Computer Numerical
Control) polishing machine. In this paper, the first results of the direct grinding and polishing of prototypes shells made
by quartz glass with low thickness, representative of the WFXT optical design, are presented.

/pdf/design-and-development-of-thin-quartz-glass-wfxt-polynomial-sghvanxayh.pdf

Design and development of thin quartz glass WFXT polynomial mirror shells by direct polishing

A number of future hard X-ray (10-100 keV) telescopes will implement focusing optics with multilayer coatings. In this framework, we are developing (at INAF/Brera-Merate Astronomical Observatory) multilayer optics based on the e-beam deposition technique: this approach is suitable to coat very large surfaces at an high deposition rate; in order to test the performances of the deposited samples, X-ray reflectivity scans at the two "standard" photon energies of 8.05 and 17.4 keV are taken, returning very positive results with high peak reflectivities. However, the exact interpretation of the reflectivity curves is a complex task since it depends on a large number of parameters: the software PPM (Pythonic Program for Multilayers) has been recently developed by A. Mirone (ESRF) specifically to the aim of a friendly and fast determination of the parameters of multilayer structures. In particular, for this paper we present the layer-by-layer modelization of the characteristics (roughness, density, thickness) of multilayer stacks (Ni/C, Pt/C) by a multi-parametric "global" automatic optimization to reach the best fitting performances. In order to physically constrain the parameters, the data will be compared with the results of TEM measurements performed on the same samples, when available.

Fitting X-ray multilayer reflectivities by means of the PPM code

Low density overcoatings (mainly based on materials containing Carbon) onto usual high-density coatings (based i.e. on materials like e.g. like Ir, Au or Pt) have been proposed since many years ago in order to enhance the X- ray reflectivity at low energy (between 0.5 and 4 keV) of X-ray astronomical optics. The trick is to make use of the total reflection from the thin low-density material (which does not suffer much the photoelectric absorption) at low X-ray energies; the reflection of photons at higher energies (< 4 keV) occurs thanks to the much denser material under the overcoating. For several future projects, like e.g. ATHENA, LYNX and eXTP, it is foreseen the use of low-density overcoatings that will importantly increase the effective area at low X-ray energies. In this paper we will introduce the use of overcoatings based on materials different from the usual ones considered so far like C, B4C and SiC. In particular, we will discuss about a novel approach based on the use of thin layer of a Carbon-like materials deposited using a dip coating method. A possible combination with an intermediate thin layer of Chromium deposited e.g. via sputtering onto the usual high density material (Ir, Au or Pt) before the application of the Carbon-like material is also considered in the study, because it can further greatly enhance the soft X-ray effective area of future X-ray telescopes.

V. Cotroneo

Papers

Development of a prototype nickel optic for the Constellation-X hard x-ray telescope

Design and development of thin quartz glass WFXT polynomial mirror shells by direct polishing

Fitting X-ray multilayer reflectivities by means of the PPM code

Soft x-ray reflectivity-enhancement in astronomical telescopes via overcoatings: alternative materials and deposition methods

The HEXIT (High Energy X-ray Imaging Telescope) balloon-borne mission