The features of conductometric gas sensors based on metal oxide composites are considered. The methods of the composites forming and the advantages of their using in the development of gas sensors are discussed. It is given the analysis of the factors that reduce the effectiveness of the composite using in conductometric gas sensors and can restrict application of nanocomposites in these devices. Technology features of composite synthesis and device fabrication, which should be taken into account while designing and fabricating sensors based on metal oxide composites, are considered. The mechanisms explaining the operation of conductometric gas sensors based on metal oxide composites are also discussed.

Metal oxide composites in conductometric gas sensors: Achievements and challenges

Electronic-nose (e-nose) instruments, derived from numerous types of aroma-sensor technologies, have been developed for a diversity of applications in the broad fields of agriculture and forestry. Recent advances in e-nose technologies within the plant sciences, including improvements in gas-sensor designs, innovations in data analysis and pattern-recognition algorithms, and progress in material science and systems integration methods, have led to significant benefits to both industries. Electronic noses have been used in a variety of commercial agricultural-related industries, including the agricultural sectors of agronomy, biochemical processing, botany, cell culture, plant cultivar selections, environmental monitoring, horticulture, pesticide detection, plant physiology and pathology. Applications in forestry include uses in chemotaxonomy, log tracking, wood and paper processing, forest management, forest health protection, and waste management. These aroma-detection applications have improved plant-based product attributes, quality, uniformity, and consistency in ways that have increased the efficiency and effectiveness of production and manufacturing processes. This paper provides a comprehensive review and summary of a broad range of electronic-nose technologies and applications, developed specifically for the agriculture and forestry industries over the past thirty years, which have offered solutions that have greatly improved worldwide agricultural and agroforestry production systems.

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Diverse Applications of Electronic-Nose Technologies in Agriculture and Forestry

Compositions of polycrystalline Mg–Zn mixed ferrites with the general formula Mg1−xZnxFe2O4 (0≤x≤1) were prepared by the standard double sintering ceramic method. The structural properties of these ferrites have been investigated using X-ray diffraction and infrared absorption spectroscopy. The lattice parameter, particle size, bonds length, force constants, density, porosity, shrinkage and cation distribution of these samples have been estimated and compared with those predicted theoretically. Most of these values were found to increase with increasing Zn content. The energy dispersive (EDS) analysis confirmed the proposed sample composition. The scanning electron microscope (SEM) and transmission electron microscope (TEM) micrographs showed aggregates of stacked crystallites of about 200–800 nm in diameter. Far infrared absorption spectra showed two significant absorption bands. The wave number of the first band, ν1, decreases with increasing Zn content, while the band, ν2 shifts linearly towards higher wave numbers with Zn contents, over the whole composition range. The room temperature electrical resistivity was found to decrease as Zn-content increases. Values of the vacancy model parameters showed that the packing factors Pa and Pb decrease, the fulfillment coefficient, α, remains almost constant and the vacancy parameter, β, strongly increases with increasing Zn content in the sample. The small values of Pa, Pb, α and the strong increase of the vacancy parameter, β, indicate the presence of cation or anion vacancies and the partial participation of the Zn2+ vacancies in the improvement of the electrical conductivity in the Mg–Zn ferrites.

Infrared and structural studies of Mg1–xZnxFe2O4 ferrites

Nickel Spinel Ferrites: A review

Magnetic CoFe2O4 nanoparticles doped with metal ions: A review

Metal carboxylato-hydrazinates are very good precursors for the synthesis of metal as well as mixed metal oxides as these decompose to nanosized oxides with high surface area most of the times at comparatively lower temperatures. In the present study one such novel precursor nickel manganese fumarato-hydrazinate (NiMn2(C4H2O4)3·6N2H4) has been prepared and characterized by XRD, FTIR and chemical analysis. The thermal decomposition of the precursor has also been studied by isothermal, differential thermal and thermogravimetric analysis. The precursor shows two-step dehydrazination followed by decarboxylation to form NiMn2O4. The infrared spectra show N-N stretching frequency at 965 cm−1, which confirm the bidentate bridging hydrazine. XRD confirms the formation of single phase NiMn2O4.

Preparation, thermal, XRD, chemical and FTIR spectral analysis of NiMn2O4 nanoparticles and respective precursor

Cobalt zinc ferrite, Co0.8Zn0.2Fe2O4, nanoparticles have been synthesized via autocatalytic decomposition of the precursor, cobalt zinc ferrous fumarato hydrazinate. The X-ray powder diffraction of the ‘as prepared’ oxide confirms the formation of single phase nanocrystalline cobalt zinc ferrite nanoparticles. The thermal decomposition of the precursor has been studied by isothermal, thermogravimetric and differential thermal analysis. The precursor has also been characterized by FTIR, and chemical analysis and its chemical composition has been determined as Co0.8Zn0.2Fe2(C4H2O4)3·6N2H4. The Curie temperature of the ‘as-prepared oxide’ was determined by AC susceptibility measurements.

Synthesis and characterization of Co0.8Zn0.2Fe2O4 nanoparticles

Nickel ferrite is technologically important magnetic material extensively used in high frequency applications such as microwave device due to its high resistivity and sufficiently low losses. It also finds application in the ferrofluids technology. Therefore, ultrafine nickel ferrite was prepared by autocatalytic combustion of novel nickel ferrous fumarato-hydrazinate precursor. The precursor was characterized by IR, AAS, TG and DTA, and a chemical formula of NiFe2(C4H2O4)3·6N2H4 was fixed. This precursor once ignited with a burning splinter at room temperature, glows and the glow spreads over the entire bulk completing the autocatalytic combustion of the precursor to ultrafine ferrite. The single phase formation of ultrafine nickel ferrite was confirmed by XRD, IR spectra and TEM. The average particle size of the ultrafine ferrite was found to be ∼20 nm by TEM. The observed lower value of saturation magnetization for nickel ferrite was due to the superparamagnetic nature of the particles, which increased with the increasing sintering temperature. The ultrafine nickel ferrite was then sintered at 1000°C for 5 h and was characterized by XRD, IR spectra, SEM and TEM. The variation of resistivity, Seebeck coefficient and a.c. susceptibility as a function of temperature was measured for NiFe2O4 and the results are discussed.

Nickel ferrite nanoparticles synthesis from novel fumarato-hydrazinate precursor

Synthesis of nanosize and sintered Mn0.3Ni0.3Zn0.4Fe2O4 ferrite and their structural and dielectric studies

Chemically beneficiated high silica/alumina iron ore rejects (27–76% Fe2O3) were used to synthesize iron oxides of purity 96–98% with SiO2/Al2O3 ratio reduced to 0.03. The major impurities on chemical beneficiations were Al, Si, and Mn in the range 2–3%. A 99.73% purity Fe2O3 was also prepared by solvent extraction method using methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK) from the acid extracts of the ore rejects. The magnesium ferrite, MgFe2O4, prepared from these synthetic iron oxides showed high resistivity of ∼ 108 ohm cm. All ferrites showed saturation magnetization, 4πMs, in the narrow range of 900–1200 Gauss and the Curie temperature,T,
 cof all these fell within a small limit of 670 ± 30 K. All ferrites had low dielectric constants (e′), 12–15, and low dielectric loss, tan δ, which decreased with the increase in frequency indicating a normal dielectric dispersion found in ferrites. The presence of insignificant amount of polarizable Fe2+ ions can be attributed to their high resistances and low dielectric constants. Impurities inherent in the samples had no marked influence on the electrical properties of the ferrites prepared from the iron ore rejects, suggesting the possibility of formation of ferrite of constant composition, MgFe2O4, of low magnetic and dielectric losses at lower temperatures of 1000°C by ceramic technique.

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V. M. S. Verenkar

Papers

Preparation, thermal, XRD, chemical and FTIR spectral analysis of NiMn2O4 nanoparticles and respective precursor

Synthesis and characterization of Co0.8Zn0.2Fe2O4 nanoparticles

Nickel ferrite nanoparticles synthesis from novel fumarato-hydrazinate precursor

Synthesis of nanosize and sintered Mn0.3Ni0.3Zn0.4Fe2O4 ferrite and their structural and dielectric studies

Dielectric behaviour of MgFe2O4 prepared from chemically beneficiated iron ore rejects