Organisation Mondiale de la Santé (O.M.S.).

Microbes are found all over the globe with some few exceptions, including sterilized surfaces. They include normal flora that is nonpathogenic, which contribute to the larger percentage, and pathogenic species which are few. Hence, the activities of humans cannot be completely separated from microbes. Thus, many pathogenic microbes have found their way into fresh fruits and vegetables which are a great source of a healthy diet for humans. The growing demand for fresh fruits and vegetables has necessitated larger production. The larger production of vegetables within the shortest possible time to meet the growing demand has placed them at a higher risk of contamination with the pathogenic microbes, making the safety of consumers uncertain. Study of sources of contamination and type of pathogenic etiological agents isolated from fresh fruits and vegetables includes Bacillus cereus, Campylobacter jejuni, Clostridium botulinum, E. coli O157: H7, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella spp., Shigella, Staphylococcus, and Vibrio cholera. Several measures have proven to be effective in controlling contamination of microbes and they include the establishment of surveillance systems to monitor the production chain and thoroughly washing vegetables with vinegar water. Saltwater and other washing techniques are effective but caution should be taken to make sure one does not use one cycle of water for washing all vegetables. The consumption of fresh fruits and vegetables is still encouraged by this review but significant measures must be taken to check the safety of these products before consumption.

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Microbial Contamination, an Increasing Threat to the Consumption of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables in Today's World.

The quality of well water in the municipality of Abomey-Calavi in Benin This study describes the supply and treatment of drinking water from the 30 wells available to the population of the semi-urban municipality of Abomey-Calavi, located near the largest commercial cities of Benin. Abomey-Calavi is the largest municipality in the Atlantic district and home to about 27.5 % of its population. The overall objective of this study is to explore and determine the degree of contamination of well water used by the population of this municipality. The results show that: in all of the wells studied, water temperatures were high, ranging from 28.3°C to 29.9°C, with an average temperature of 28.5°C, although WHO recommended a norm of 25 °C; 13.3 % of the wells studied contained nitrite and iron, and 16.7 % manganese. This is indicative of chemical pollution, with concentrations exceeding the accepted norm of 0.1 mg/L for nitrites, 0.2 mg/L for iron, and 0.05 mg/L for manganese. 100 % of the water in the wells studied showed bacterial pollution by Escherichia coli, fecal streptococcus species, bacterial salmonella, shigella, Clostridium perfringens, and staphylococcus species. All these bacteria expose the population to risks of various waterborne diseases, which account for 54 % of all the diseases in Benin and remain the principal cause of morbidity (diarrhea 7 %, other gastrointestinal ailments 8 %) and mortality (12.5 %), mainly among children younger than five years. These results underline the importance not only of providing the population with modern equipment for access to potable water, but also to promote health education to prevent water pollution. The lack of infrastructure in this community shows the extent to which potable water remains a problem here.

Article original La qualité de l'eau de puits dans la commune d'Abomey-Calavi au Bénin

.................................................................................................................................................. xvii CHAPTER ONE .......................................................................................................................................... 1 1.0 INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................... 1 1.1 General introduction.......................................................................................................... 1 1.1.1 Plants as sources of medicines ......................................................................1 1.2 Literature review ............................................................................................................... 3 1.2.1 Malaria disease ...............................................................................................3 1.2.1.1 Transmission of malaria ..................................................................................... 4 1.2.1.2 Symptoms of malaria .......................................................................................... 5 1.2.1.3 International perspective of malaria................................................................... 7 1.2.1.4 Malaria control .................................................................................................... 8 1.2.2 The role of plants in development of medicines for malaria .................... 10 1.2.2.1 Annonaceae family ........................................................................................... 12 1.2.2.2 Monanthotaxis genus in Kenya ........................................................................ 14 1.2.2.3 Monanthotaxis parvifolia ssp. kenyensis ......................................................... 17 1.3 Study justification ........................................................................................................... 19 1.4 Study objectives .............................................................................................................. 19

Antiplasmodial and phytochemical investigation of monanthotaxis parvifolia (oliv.) verdc ssp. kenyensis verdc (annonaceae)

The objective of this study was to evaluate the performance of three stumps of Saccharomyces cerevisiae in the ethanol bioconversion of the diluted stems of sweet sorghum (Sorghum saccharatum L.) and to monitor the kinetic parameters of fermentation. Therefore, different initial concentrations of three stems from S. cerevisiae are used to ferment the juice. The juice obtained was formulated from one kilogram (1 kg) of stems of S. saccharatum and 0.5 L of distilled water. The monitoring of the kinetic fermentation parameters of the musts revealed that the best production yields (28.31±0.07 and 24.23±0.07 mL/kg) from bioethanol are obtained with the fermented mashes in the presence of the Angel brand super alcohol (3 and 5 g/L). This study showed that the stem of S. saccharatum L. constitutes a good fermentable biomass that could be valorized through the production of first-generation biofuel.

	Key words: Sorghum, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, fermentation, bioethanol.

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Production of bioethanol from stems of Sorghum saccharatum monitoring kinetic parameters of fermentation

Objectif: La presente etude vise a valoriser la pomme cajou, a travers l’etude de la cinetique de conversion de son jus en bioethanol par voie fermentaire. Methodologie et Resultats: Au cours de l’etude, les performances fermentaires des levures  Saccharomyces carlsbergensis et de trois souches levuriennes de Saccharomyces cerevisiae , notamment  Angel brand super alcohol , Angel super alcohol et Angel brand Thermal-tolerant alcohol dans la production de bioethanol a partir du jus de pomme cajou ont ete testees. Le suivi des parametres cinetiques de fermentation du jus tels que le Brix, le pH, l’acidite et la densite, a montre une grande variabilite de ces parametres au cours du processus de fermentation en presence et en absence de l’uree (CON 2 H 4 ), utilisee comme facteur de croissance. La distillation des mouts en fin de fermentation a permis d’obtenir des taux d’extraction en ethanol (% v/v a 20°C) compris entre (20,48±0,02)% et (51,55±0,01)%. La meilleure performance de bioconversion ethanolique a ete enregistree avec Saccharomyces carlsbergensis et la souche Angel brand thermal-tolerant alcohol , en presence d’uree. Conclusion: Cette etude a montre que ces deux souches peuvent etre utilisees comme des ferments efficaces, dans la perspective d’une production intensive de bioethanol a partir du jus de pomme cajou. Mots-cles: pomme cajou, fermentation, levures, biocarburant, Benin English Title:  Evaluation of the fermentative potential of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and S. carlsbergensis in the production of bioethanol using cashew apple juice English Abstract Objective: The present study aims to valorize the cashew apple, through the study of the kinetic conversion of its juice for bioethanol production by fermentation process. Methodology and Results: During the study, the yeast fermentation performances of Saccharomyces carlsbergensis and three strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae , including Angel brand super alcohol , Angel super alcohol and Angel brand Thermal-tolerant alcohol were tested. Monitoring fermentation kinetic parameters such as Brix, pH, acidity and density, showed a great variability of these parameters during the fermentation process in the presence and absence of urea (CON 2 H 4 ), used as growth factor. Distillation of fermented liquids has yielded ethanol extraction rate (% v/v at 20°C) between (20.48±0.02)% and (51.55±0,01)%. The best ethanolic bioconversion performance was recorded with Saccharomyces carlsbergensis and the strain of Angel brand thermal-tolerant alcohol in the presence of urea. Conclusion: This study showed that both two strains could be used as effective ferments, in the perspective of intensive production of bioethanol using cashew apple juice. Keywords: cashew apple fermentation, yeasts, biofuel, Benin

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Évaluation du pouvoir fermentaire de Saccharomyces cerevisiae et de S. carlsbergensis dans la production de bioéthanol à partir du jus de la pomme cajou

L’eau, source potentielle de vie, doit subir diverses analyses physico-chimiques qui definiront sa qualite pour la consommation humaine afin d’eviter les risques de maladies hydriques pour les consommateurs. La presente etude vise a determiner la qualite physico-chimique de l’eau de boisson des populations de deux villes du Benin : Dassa-Zoume et Cotonou. Trois points de prelevement ont ete identifies dans chacune des deux localites pour un total de six (06) echantillons. Dix-neuf parametres physico-chimiques ont ete evalues sur ces echantillons. Certains parametres (temperature, pH, turbidite et conductivite) susceptibles de modification au cours du transport ont ete determines " in situ ". Les resultats obtenus ont montre que l’eau des deux localites que consomment les populations est de bonne qualite sur le plan physico-chimique. Neanmoins, l’eau de consommation des populations de Dassa est plus alcaline et plus dure que celle de Cotonou : soit respectivement de 390 a 480 mg/l et de 25 a 35 mg/l puis de 232 a 260 mg/l et de 15 a 27 mg/l. Ce constat pourrait expliquer le caractere moins moussant et le gout terne souvent remarques au niveau de l’eau de Dassa et serait lie a la nature geologique des sols traverses. © 2016 International Formulae Group. All rights reserved Mots cles: Qualite physico-chimique, eau de boisson, Benin English Title: Study of the physico-chemical quality of drinking water in two localities of Benin: Cotonou and Dassa-Zoume English Abstract Water, potential source of life, must undergo various physico-chemical analyzes that will define its quality for human consumption in order to avoid the risk of water-borne diseases to consumers. The present study aims to determine the physico-chemical quality of population’s drinking water in two cities of Benin: Cotonou and Dassa-Zoume. Three sampling points were identified in each of the two localities for a total of six (06) samples. Nineteen physico-chemical parameters were evaluated on these samples. Some parameters (temperature, pH, turbidity and conductivity) which may be modified during transport were determined " in  situ ". The results showed that the water consumed by the populations of both localities has a good physicochemical quality. Nevertheless, drinking water of Dassa’s populations was more alkaline and harder than that of Cotonou: respectively 390-480 mg/l and 232-260 mg/l for Dassa and then 25-35 mg/l and 15-17 mg/l for Cotonou. This finding may explain the less foaming character and dull taste often noticed in Dassa's water and would be linked to the geological nature of the soils traversed. © 2016 International Formulae Group. All rights reserved Keywords: Physico-chemical quality, drinking water, Benin

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Etude de la qualité physico-chimique de l’eau de boisson dans deux localités du Bénin: Cotonou et Dassa-Zoumè

Water, potential source of life, must undergo various physico-chemical and bacteriological analyzes that will define its quality for human consumption in order to avoid the risk of water-borne diseases to consumers. Physico-chemical and bacteriological quality of an Ouega-Fandji’s drilling water, use as drinking water, were investigated. Two (02) samples are constituted for the two analyzes’ types. Twenty physico-chemical parameters (pH, Temperature, Electrical conductivity, Colour, Turbidity, Nitrites, Nitrates, Ammonium, Calcium, Magnesium, Total iron, Bicarbonates, Alcalinity, Chlorides, Sulphates, Fluorides, Iodides, Total hardness, Total Dissolved Solids) and three bacteriological parameters (Fecal coliforms, Total coliforms, Fecal streptococci) are evalued on samples. Some physical parameters (temperature, pH, turbidity and conductivity) able to change during transport have been determined "in situ" using a portable multimeter (HANNA, HI 991300). The results obtained showed that unwanted substances (nitrites, nitrates, ammonium, fluorides, sulfates and iron) were almost absent. The physico-chemical parameters measured in this water sample comply with the quality standards for drinking water in Benin Republic. The conclusion is the same for bacteriological parameters, although the number of total coliforms (13 CFU) present in 100 mL of this water sample exceeds that recommended in Benin Republic. Therefore, disinfection of this water by the usual disinfection methods like chlorination with calcium hypochlorite is mandatory.

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Physico-Chemical and Bacteriological Characterization of an Ouéga-Fandji’s Drilling Water in Benin

Nutritional requirements in the fermentation process are key parameters for optimal yeast development and ethanol production. Natural nutritional supplements rich in nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and micro-elements can improve the performance of yeasts and offer a sustainable, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly alternative to synthetic chemicals. This study aimed at investigating the effect of a natural yeast nutrient (fermented Parkia biglobosa seeds) on bioethanol production from cashew apple juice by Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The proximate and mineral compositions of fermented seeds were evaluated. Their powder was added to yeast medium at a concentration of 4–12 g/L. The behavior of two yeast strains (Angel brand super alcohol (S1) and Angel brand thermal-tolerant alcohol (S2)) was inspected. Titratable acidity, pH, °Brix, and density were evaluated during 144 h of fermentation. Sugar consumption was maximal after 72 and 48 h of fermentation for S1 and S2 yeast strains, respectively. The best ethanol yields of 0.19 and 0.22 g/g were obtained with S1 and S2 yeast strains, respectively, using 12 g/L of nutrients for the first and without nutrient supplementation for the second (control sample). The non-conventional nutrients from fermented P. biglobosa seeds seem to be favorablefor ethanol production using only S1 yeast strain.

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Fermented Parkia biglobosa seeds as a nitrogen source supplementation for bioethanol production from cashew apple juice

Drug resistance developed by Plasmodium falciparum doubled their rates of infection in the last two decades and encourages efforts to further explore natural materials that can be used as a new antimalarial drug. Thus, present study aims to evaluate "in vitro" antioxidant (DPPH test) and antiplasmodial activities of ethanolic and aqueous ethanolic extracts (30/70) of Benin’s Polygonum senegalense leaves. Compared with the ethanolic extract, only the hydroethanolic extract has a good anti-radical activity with an IC50 (0.18 mg/mL) similar to that of quercetin (0.1 mg/mL) which is one of references antioxidants used in this study. This activity would be due to the presence of phenolic compounds identified during the phytochemical screening of Polygonum leaves and their high presence in the aqueous ethanolic extract (81.76 mg/g against 17.83 mg/g for the ethanol extract) revealed by quantitative analysis. Both extracts investigated showed good antiplasmodial activity (IC50 50 μg/mL). The plant material studied is therefore a potential source of phenolic compounds, antimalarial and anti-radical molecules. Keywords: Polygonum senegalense, Phenolic compounds, Antiradical, Antiplasmodial.

Virginie Gbohaida

Papers

Évaluation du pouvoir fermentaire de Saccharomyces cerevisiae et de S. carlsbergensis dans la production de bioéthanol à partir du jus de la pomme cajou

Etude de la qualité physico-chimique de l’eau de boisson dans deux localités du Bénin: Cotonou et Dassa-Zoumè

Physico-Chemical and Bacteriological Characterization of an Ouéga-Fandji’s Drilling Water in Benin

Fermented Parkia biglobosa seeds as a nitrogen source supplementation for bioethanol production from cashew apple juice

Radical Scavenging and Antiplasmodial Activity of Polygonum senegalense of Benin