A model integrating competing theories of social capital with research on career success was developed and tested in a sample of 448 employees with various occupations and organizations. Social capital was conceptualized in terms of network structure and social resources. Results of structural equation modeling showed that network structure was related to social resources and that the effects of social resources on career success were fully mediated by three network benefits: access to information, access to resources, and career sponsorship.

A Social Capital Theory of Career Success

Careful reading of the literature on the psychology of criminal conduct and of prior reviews of studies of treatment effects suggests that neither criminal sanctioning without provision of rehabilitative service nor servicing without reference to clinical principles of rehabilitation will succeed in reducing recidivism. What works, in our view, is the delivery of appropriate correctional service, and appropriate service reflects three psychological principles: (1) delivery of service to higher risk cases, (2) targeting of criminogenic needs, and (3) use of styles and modes of treatment (e.g., cognitive and behavioral) that are matched with client need and learning styles. These principles were applied to studies of juvenile and adult correctional treatment, which yielded 154 phi coefficients that summarized the magnitude and direction of the impact of treatment on recidivism. The effect of appropriate correctional service (mean phi = .30) was significantly (p <.05) greater than that of unspecified correctional service (.13), and both were more effective than inappropriate service (−.06) and non-service criminal sanctioning (−.07). Service was effective within juvenile and adult corrections, in studies published before and after 1980, in randomized and nonrandomized designs, and in diversionary, community, and residential programs (albeit, attenuated in residential settings). Clinical sensitivity and a psychologically informed perspective on crime may assist in the renewed service, research, and conceptual efforts that are strongly indicated by our review.

Does correctional treatment work? a clinically relevant and psychologically informed meta-analysis *

▪ Abstract This essay traces the development of the research enterprise, known as the social resources theory, which formulated and tested a number of propositions concerning the relationships between embedded resources in social networks and socioeconomic attainment. This enterprise, seen in the light of social capital, has accumulated a substantial body of research literature and supported the proposition that social capital, in terms of both access and mobilization of embedded resources, enhances the chances of attaining better statuses. Further, social capital is contingent on initial positions in the social hierarchies as well as on extensity of social ties. The essay concludes with a discussion of remaining critical issues and future research directions for this research enterprise.

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Social networks and status attainment

Four principles of classification for effective rehabilitation are reviewed: risk, need, responsivity, and professional override. Many examples of Case x Treatment interactions are presented to ill...

Classification for effective rehabilitation: Rediscovering psychology.

We extend the routine activity perspective's situational analysis of crime to individual offending and to a broad range of deviant behaviors. In this view, unstructured socializing with peers in the absence of authority figures presents opportunities for deviance: In the presence of peers, deviant acts will be easier and more rewarding; the absence of authority figures reduces the potential for social control responses to deviance; and the lack of structure leaves time available for deviant behavior. To determine whether individuals who spend more time in unstructured socializing activities engage in deviant behaviors more frequently, we analyzed within-individual changes in routine activities and deviance across five waves of data for a national sample of more than 1,700 18- to 26-year-olds. Participation in these routine activities was strongly associated with criminal behavior, heavy alcohol use, use of marijuana and other illicit drugs, and dangerous driving. Furthermore, routine activities accounted for a substantial portion of the association between these deviant behaviors and age, sex, and socioeconomic status.

Routine Activities and Individual Deviant Behavior

Thirty-five studies examining the relationship between social class and crime/delinquency are reduced to comparable statistics using instances where the relationship was studied for specific categories of age, sex, race, place of residence, data type, or offense as units of analysis. The findings from 363 instances are summarized and patterns are identified. The overall results show only a slight negative relationship between class and criminality, with self-report studies reflecting lower associations than official statistics studies. Moreover, analysis demonstrates a clear historical decline in magnitude of association to the point where both self-report and official statistics studies done in the current decade find no class variation. This historical trend is shown to be due to changes in the findings from studies using official statistics as indicators of criminality. Alternative interpretations are discussed, but all lead to serious doubts about the adequacy of theories of deviance that contain assumptions of class differences. (abstract Adapted from Source: American Sociological Review, 1978. Copyright © 1978 by the American Sociological Association) Social Class Class Factors Sociocultural Factors Socioeconomic Factors Crime Causes Delinquency Causes Adult Crime Adult Offender Juvenile Crime Juvenile Delinquency Juvenile Offender 07-00

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The myth of social class and criminality: an empirical assessment of the empirical evidence*

This note explores the generalizability of the conventional belief that jobs found through weak social ties and through work-related social ties provide higher incomes than jobs found through other means. Data are analyzed from a sample which is representative of a complete cross-section of a large metropolitan labor market. The results show that zero-order relationships generalize in most instances to broadly defined populations. However, the effectiveness of weakly-tied and work-related informal contacts becomes greatly diminished when controls are added for measures of worker productivity characteristics.

Informal Hiring and Income in the Labor Market

Social class variations in self-reported criminality are examined using data from a comprehensive sample of adults in three states. The results prove to be contrary to any current theories concerning the relationship between social class and deviance, particularly the most popular ones that postulate an inverse relationship between the two. But it is shown that these findings are actually consistent with the bulk of previous research which shows the relationship to be problematic. The extant evidence seems to mandate reconceptualization of theories of deviance to minimize social class as a variable. Social class has always been a fundamental variable in sociological study of crime/delinquency, and practically every theory has given socioeconomic status a prominent explanatory role. Although several patterns of relationship between class and crime have been theorized (Hirschi, b), the most popular explanations assume an inverse relationship between class position and criminality (A. Cohen, a; Gove; Merton; Miller). And despite some skepticism (see Box and Ford; Empey, for summaries), the belief has persisted for a long time that the bulk of evidence actually demonstrates such a relationship (Bytheway and May; Cressey, 157; Rossides, 443; Wheeler, 213). So firm is this belief that at least one recent book has been written to account for the "diverse empirical findings that link social inequality and deviant behavior, particularly in American Society" (Hewitt, 3). Further, even though some writers, sobered by the results of some self-report studies, are now careful to limit their generalizations to statements about social class and "officially recorded" crime or delinquency (Cohen and Short, 110-1; Reid, 66-7), confidence that at least that relationship has been established is almost universal (Hood and Sparks, 54). Yet, the literature concerning this issue is unconvincing. For one thing, methodological weaknesses render much of the evidence problematic. Some frequently cited studies report the relationship between class and crime for ecological areas rather than for individuals (Chilton; Lander; Shaw and McKay; Slatin), and several ostensibly relevant investigations have not in fact employed indicators of individual socioeconomic status (B. *This research was supported by NSF Grant GS-31744.

Social Class and Criminality

Building on previous demonstrations of a linkage between organizational size and individual outcomes, this paper employs a matched employer-employee data set to investigate that relationship. Some portion of the size effect on worker earnings is found to be indirect, as many have assumed, derived either through the organizational consequences of size or the industrial/market consequences of scale. However, the effect is not straightforward. It varies by group (gender, occupation, and industry), is differentially mediated by internal labor markets, literacy requirements, and unionization, differs according to whether firms are singleor multi-establishment, and for individuals as to whether firm size or establishment size is most salient to their earnings. For white-collar workers, firm size is most important, but not primarily due to organizational aspects of size. For blue-collar workers, establishment size is most important, largely due to the organizational concomitants of size. Female clerical workers are found to be a special case, and clear gender differences exist in the effect of size.

When Bigger is Better: Differences in the Individual-Level Effect of Firm and Establishment Size

From a market perspective, workers' access to bureaucratic personnel structures at work is related to the transferability of their occupational skills. An institutional perspective emphasizes "normative and coercive" factors like union power, establishment size, occupational status, and extent of government employment. Building on these two perspectives, we examine the impact of an occupation's external marketthe extent to which it offers systematic within-occupation movement among employers on internal job mobility and protection structures and the availability of grievance procedures. Data from a sample of Chicago workers and their employers confirm aspects of both market and institutional theory. Results also support our core hypothesis, that incumbents of occupations embedded in strong external markets are less likely to have these governance structures available.

https://www.jstor.org/stable/info/2096253

Wayne J. Villemez

Papers

The myth of social class and criminality: an empirical assessment of the empirical evidence*

Informal Hiring and Income in the Labor Market

Social Class and Criminality

When Bigger is Better: Differences in the Individual-Level Effect of Firm and Establishment Size

Employment Relations and the Labor Market: Integrating Institutional and Market Perspectives