Human beings can be proactive and engaged or, alternatively, passive and alienated, largely as a function of the social conditions in which they develop and function. Accordingly, research guided by self-determination theo~ has focused on the social-contextual conditions that facilitate versus forestall the natural processes of self-motivation and healthy psychological development. Specifically, factors have been examined that enhance versus undermine intrinsic motivation, self-regulation, and well-being. The findings have led to the postulate of three innate psychological needs--competence, autonomy, and relatednesswhich when satisfied yield enhanced self-motivation and mental health and when thwarted lead to diminished motivation and well-being. Also considered is the significance of these psychological needs and processes within domains such as health care, education, work, sport, religion, and psychotherapy. T he fullest representations of humanity show people to be curious, vital, and self-motivated. At their best, they are agentic and inspired, striving to learn; extend themselves; master new skills; and apply their talents responsibly. That most people show considerable effort, agency, and commitment in their lives appears, in fact, to be more normative than exceptional, suggesting some very positive and persistent features of human nature. Yet, it is also clear that the human spirit can be diminished or crushed and that individuals sometimes reject growth and responsibility. Regardless of social strata or cultural origin, examples of both children and adults who are apathetic, alienated, and irresponsible are abundant. Such non-optimal human functioning can be observed not only in our psychological clinics but also among the millions who, for hours a day, sit passively before their televisions, stare blankly from the back of their classrooms, or wait listlessly for the weekend as they go about their jobs. The persistent, proactive, and positive tendencies of human nature are clearly not invariantly apparent. The fact that human nature, phenotypically expressed, can be either active or passive, constructive or indolent, suggests more than mere dispositional differences and is a function of more than just biological endowments. It also bespeaks a wide range of reactions to social environments that is worthy of our most intense scientific investigation. Specifically, social contexts catalyze both within- and between-person differences in motivation and personal growth, resulting in people being more self-motivated, energized, and integrated in some situations, domains, and cultures than in others. Research on the conditions that foster versus undermine positive human potentials has both theoretical import and practical significance because it can contribute not only to formal knowledge of the causes of human behavior but also to the design of social environments that optimize people's development, performance, and well-being. Research guided by self-determination theory (SDT) has had an ongoing concern with precisely these

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Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being.

Cost Effectiveness in Health and Medicine.

Statistical Analysis With Missing Data (2nd ed.) (Book)

This synthesis of findings is divided into three sections. The first section, “About the Studies,” briefly describes why these 51 studies were selected and how the data was analyzed. The second section, “Synthesis of Research Studies,” provides findings and recommendations as a result of the data analysis. The third section, “The Research Studies,” provides a brief (1-2 pages) description of each study.

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A New Wave of Evidence: The Impact of School, Family, and Community Connections on Student Achievement. Annual Synthesis, 2002.

Program integrity in primary and early secondary prevention: are implementation effects out of control?

OBJECTIVE: To examine levels of violence exposure and reports of feeling unsafe in relation to psychological and behavioral characteristics for a general population sample of youths from an urban setting. METHOD: A comprehensive survey of high-risk behaviors, attitudes, indicators of adaptive behavior, and daily involvements was administered to a sample of 2,248 students in the 6th, 8th, and 10th grades in an urban public school system. RESULTS: More than 40% of the youths surveyed reported exposure to a shooting or stabbing in the past year, and 74% reported feeling unsafe in one or more common environmental contexts. Multiple regression analyses indicated significant relationships between violence exposure/feeling unsafe and a set of indicators of psychological and behavioral adaptation and expressed attitudes. CONCLUSIONS: These results attest to the picture of violence as a common fact of inner-city life and to the demand that is placed on urban youths to accommodate in their psychological development to chronic threat and lack of safety. VioLit summary: OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study by Schwab-Stone et al. was to investigate the psychological and behavioral characteristics of urban youth in relation to violence exposure and feelings of safety. METHODOLOGY: The authors conducted a quasi-experimental, cross-sectional analysis of data collected from 2,248 6th, 8th and 10th grade students attending urban district schools. The ethnic composition of the sample consisted of African-American, Hispanic and Caucasian students. The authors reported that 54.8% of the sample were female. 53.9% of the students lived in two parent households, 39.4% lived with one parent. The authors stated that a survey was administered by research or school personnel to students attending 142 classes at the 17 participating schools. The authors utilized the Social and Health Assessment measure (Weissberg et al., 1991), a 182 item instrument designed to measure middle and high school students' high risk behaviors, and positive community and school interests. The authors utilized survey items that addressed students' exposure to violence, feelings of safety, and the association between these factors and various measures of school and psychological functioning. Indicators of risk included an item that addressed violence exposure; "During the past year how many times have you seen someone get shot or stabbed?" Frequency of violence exposure was measured using a five point likert scale. Three groups of exposure levels were derived. These included no exposure, moderate exposure and high exposure. Feelings of safety were measured by assessing four spheres of student life. These included: "I feel safe in my home"; "...in my neighborhood"; "...at my school"; "...on the school bus or while walking to school." The authors organized three categories of feelings of safety according to the number of contexts in which respondents said they felt unsafe. The three categories consisted of those feeling safe in all four contexts, those feeling unsafe in one or two contexts and those feeling unsafe in three or four of the environments. Student attitudes were measured along three dimensions. These included "Willingness to use physical aggression" if respondent had been insulted, had an insulted family member, had something stolen and had been hit. Four items from the National Adolescent Student Health Survey (American School Health Association, 1990) were utilized. Cronbach's alpha was .76. "Diminished Perception of Risk Taking" addressed how much students believed that others their age would risk harming themselves. Criteria included substance use, carrying guns, fighting, ditching school, and other similar criteria. Four items were taken from the Monitoring the Future Scale (Johnston et al., 1990) and six items were developed by the authors. Likert scale format was utilized and ranged from 1 = no risk, to 4 = great risk. Cronbach's alpha was .85. Expectations about the future were assessed using 5 of 10 items from Jessor's Expectations of Goal Attainment Scale (Jessor et al., 1989). Items included "What are the chances that you will graduate from high school?"; "...that you will go to college?"; "...that you will have a job that pays well?"; "...will have a happy family life; and "...will stay in good health most of the time?" Cronbach's alpha was .76. Adaptation was measured along four dimensions. Depressed mood and anxiety was assessed with items adapted from a survey by Jessor et al. (1989). They included: "Have you just felt really down about things?"; "...depressed about life in general?"; and "Have you spent a lot of time worrying about little things?" A four point scale ranged from 1 = not at all, to 4 = a lot. Cronbach's alpha was .74. A seven item scale was developed based on Jessor's Delinquent-Type Behavior scale (three items) (Jessor et al., 1989), the National Adolescent Student Health Survey (one item) (American School Health Association, 1990) and the Youth Risk Behavior Survey (one item) (Centers for Disease Control, 1991) to measure aggression and antisocial activities (e.g., fighting, arrest, vandalism, theft, carrying a gun). Cronbach's alpha was .76. Frequency and type of alcohol used over the previous 30 days were assessed using a four item scale obtained from the Monitoring the Future Scale (Johnston et al., 1990). Cronbach's alpha was .82. Two items measured academic achievement; one asked if a grade had been repeated, the other asked for grade status. Respondents' mean z scores served as a measure of school achievement. The authors conducted chi square analyses, one-way ANOVAS, and multiple hierarchical regression analyses to evaluate the data. FINDINGS/DISCUSSION: The authors found that 41.3% of students reported that they had seen one or more shootings or stabbings in the past year. Males reported significantly greater violence exposure than females F(1,2199)=25.68, p In conclusion the authors stated that, overall, exposure to violence and feeling unsafe accounted for a large proportion of the variance in predicting aggressive/antisocial involvement. The authors reported that violence exposure was a high predictor of four aspects of social and personal adjustment. Depressed/anxious mood, aggressive/antisocial behavior and lower academic achievement were all significantly associated with feeling unsafe. AUTHORS' RECOMMENDATIONS: The authors suggested that the collection of future data on psychological and behavioral outcomes of violence exposure will enable a more thorough examination of its effects on feeling unsafe. (CSPV Abstract - Copyright © 1992-2007 by the Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence, Institute of Behavioral Science, Regents of the University of Colorado) Child Witness Juvenile Witness Exposure to Violence Community Violence Effects Witnessing Community Violence Witnessing Violence Effects Community Violence Effects Child Adjustment Juvenile Adjustment Elementary School Student Grade 6 Grade 8 Grade 10 Junior High School Student Senior High School Student Early Adolescence Late Adolescence Late Childhood Urban Youth Urban Environment Urban Violence Psychological Victimization Effects Language: en

No Safe Haven: A Study of Violence Exposure in an Urban Community

This study examines the ways in which parental involvement in children's education changes over time and how it relates to children's social and academic functioning in school. Teachers provided information on parent involvement and school performance for 1,205 urban, kindergarten through third-grade children for 3 consecutive years. They rated the following four dimensions of parent involvement: frequency of parent-teacher contact, quality of the parent-teacher interactions, participation in educational activities at home, and participation in school activites. As predicted, the frequency of parent-teacher contacts, quality of parent-teacher interactions, and parent participation at school declined from Years 1 to 3. Every parent involvement variable correlated moderately with school performance and parent involvement in Years 1 and 2, and accounted for a small, but significant amount of variance in Year 3 performance after controlling for initial performance level. Participation in educational activities at home predicted the widest range of performance variables. Results suggest that enhancing parental involvement in children's schooling relates to improvements in school functioning.

A Longitudinal Assessment of Teacher Perceptions of Parent Involvement in Children's Education and School Performance

Background Supported housing, integrating clinical and housing services, is a widely advocated intervention for homeless people with mental illness. In 1992, the US Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) and the US Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) established the HUD-VA Supported Housing (HUD-VASH) program. Methods Homeless veterans with psychiatric and/or substance abuse disorders or both (N = 460) were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 groups: (1) HUD-VASH, with Section 8 vouchers (rent subsidies) and intensive case management (n = 182);(2) case management only, without special access to Section 8 vouchers (n= 90); and (3) standard VA care (n = 188) Primary outcomes were days housed and days homeless. Secondary outcomes were mental health status, community adjustment, and costs from 4 perspectives. Results During a 3-year follow-up, HUD-VASH veterans had 16% more days housed than the case management– only group and 25% more days housed than the standard care group ( P P = .29). The HUD-VASH group also experienced 35% and 36% fewer days homeless than each of the control groups ( P Conclusions Supported housing for homeless people with mental illness results in superior housing outcomes than intensive case management alone or standard care and modestly increases societal costs.

https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/articlepdf/207801/yoa20666.pdf

Cost-effectiveness of Supported Housing for Homeless Persons With Mental Illness

Objective: Research suggests that subsidized housing combined with mental health services may be an effective intervention for successfully placing individuals who have a mental illness and a history of homelessness into community housing. However, there is limited longitudinal information available about the risk of loss of housing after a successful exit from homelessness. Methods: The study presented here examined the risk and predictors of returning to homelessness after successful housing in a sample of 392 formerly homeless veterans involved in an experimental trial of case management plus rent subsidy vouchers, case management only, or standard care. Results: Over the course of a fiveyear period, 44% of all participants experienced a period of homelessness for at least one day after successful placement into housing. Cox regression analysis found that participants in the case management plus voucher condition had significantly longer periods of continuous housing, compared with participants in the other two groups. Other predictors of decreased housing tenure were drug use and a diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder. Conclusions: Subsidized housing vouchers, combined with intensive case management, are advantageous both for facilitating the initial transition from homelessness to being housed and for reducing the risk of discontinuous housing, even among individuals with more severe substance abuse problems. (Psychiatric Services 59: 268–275, 2008)

https://ps.psychiatryonline.org/doi/pdf/10.1176/ps.2008.59.3.268

Rates and Risk Factors for Homelessness After Successful Housing in a Sample of Formerly Homeless Veterans

In 1992, the US Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) and the US Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) established the HUD-VA Supported Housing (HUD-VASH) Program to provide integrated clinical and housing services to homeless veterans with psychiatric and/or substance abuse disorders at 19 sites. At four sites, 460 subjects were randomly assigned to one of the three groups: (1) HUD-VASH, with both Section 8 vouchers and intensive case management; (2) case management only; and (3) standard VA care. A previous publication found HUD-VASH resulted in superior housing outcomes but yielded no benefits on clinical outcomes. Since many participants missed prescheduled visits during the follow-up period and follow-up rates were quite different across the groups, we reanalyzed these data using multiple imputation statistical methods to account for the missing observations. Significant benefits were found for HUD-VASH in drug and alcohol abuse outcomes that had not previously been identified.

Wesley J. Kasprow

Papers

No Safe Haven: A Study of Violence Exposure in an Urban Community

A Longitudinal Assessment of Teacher Perceptions of Parent Involvement in Children's Education and School Performance

Cost-effectiveness of Supported Housing for Homeless Persons With Mental Illness

Rates and Risk Factors for Homelessness After Successful Housing in a Sample of Formerly Homeless Veterans

Impact of supported housing on clinical outcomes: analysis of a randomized trial using multiple imputation technique.