Plants represent a vast, renewable resource and are well suited to provide sustainably for humankind’s transportation fuel needs. To produce infrastructure-compatible fuels from biomass, two challenges remain: overcoming plant cell wall recalcitrance to extract sugar and phenolic intermediates, and reduction of oxygenated intermediates to fuel molecules. To compete with fossil-based fuels, two primary routes to deconstruct cell walls are under development, namely biochemical and thermochemical conversion. Here, we focus on overcoming recalcitrance with biochemical conversion, which uses low-severity thermochemical pretreatment followed by enzymatic hydrolysis to produce soluble sugars. Many challenges remain, including understanding how pretreatments affect the physicochemical nature of heterogeneous cell walls; determination of how enzymes deconstruct the cell wall effectively with the aim of designing superior catalysts; and resolution of issues associated with the co-optimization of pretreatment, enzymatic hydrolysis, and fermentation. Here, we highlight some of the scientific challenges and open questions with a particular focus on problems across multiple length scales.

Deconstruction of lignocellulosic biomass to fuels and chemicals

Biological conversion of cellulosic biomass to fuels and chemicals offers the high yields to products vital to economic success and the potential for very low costs. Enzymatic hydrolysis that converts lignocellulosic biomass to fermentable sugars may be the most complex step in this process due to substrate-related and enzyme-related effects and their interactions. Although enzymatic hydrolysis offers the potential for higher yields, higher selectivity, lower energy costs and milder operating conditions than chemical processes, the mechanism of enzymatic hydrolysis and the relationship between the substrate structure and function of various glycosyl hydrolase components is not well understood. Consequently, limited success has been realized in maximizing sugar yields at very low cost. This review highlights literature on the impact of key substrate and enzyme features that influence performance, to better understand fundamental strategies to advance enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulosic biomass for biologica...

Enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulosic biomass

Conversion of lignocellulose to biofuels is partly inefficient due to the deleterious impact of cellulose crystallinity on enzymatic saccharification. We demonstrate how the synergistic activity of cellulases was enhanced by altering the hydrogen bond network within crystalline cellulose fibrils. We provide a molecular-scale explanation of these phenomena through molecular dynamics (MD) simulations and enzymatic assays. Ammonia transformed the naturally occurring crystalline allomorph I(β) to III(I), which led to a decrease in the number of cellulose intrasheet hydrogen bonds and an increase in the number of intersheet hydrogen bonds. This rearrangement of the hydrogen bond network within cellulose III(I), which increased the number of solvent-exposed glucan chain hydrogen bonds with water by ~50%, was accompanied by enhanced saccharification rates by up to 5-fold (closest to amorphous cellulose) and 60-70% lower maximum surface-bound cellulase capacity. The enhancement in apparent cellulase activity was attributed to the "amorphous-like" nature of the cellulose III(I) fibril surface that facilitated easier glucan chain extraction. Unrestricted substrate accessibility to active-site clefts of certain endocellulase families further accelerated deconstruction of cellulose III(I). Structural and dynamical features of cellulose III(I), revealed by MD simulations, gave additional insights into the role of cellulose crystal structure on fibril surface hydration that influences interfacial enzyme binding. Subtle alterations within the cellulose hydrogen bond network provide an attractive way to enhance its deconstruction and offer unique insight into the nature of cellulose recalcitrance. This approach can lead to unconventional pathways for development of novel pretreatments and engineered cellulases for cost-effective biofuels production.

https://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/pdf2011/fpl_2011_chundawat001.pdf

Restructuring the crystalline cellulose hydrogen bond network enhances its depolymerization rate

SUMMARY Basidiomycete fungi subsist on various types of plant material in diverse environments, from living and dead trees and forest litter to crops and grasses and to decaying plant matter in soils. Due to the variation in their natural carbon sources, basidiomycetes have highly varied plant-polysaccharide-degrading capabilities. This topic is not as well studied for basidiomycetes as for ascomycete fungi, which are the main sources of knowledge on fungal plant polysaccharide degradation. Research on plant-biomass-decaying fungi has focused on isolating enzymes for current and future applications, such as for the production of fuels, the food industry, and waste treatment. More recently, genomic studies of basidiomycete fungi have provided a profound view of the plant-biomass-degrading potential of wood-rotting, litter-decomposing, plant-pathogenic, and ectomycorrhizal (ECM) basidiomycetes. This review summarizes the current knowledge on plant polysaccharide depolymerization by basidiomycete species from diverse habitats. In addition, these data are compared to those for the most broadly studied ascomycete genus, Aspergillus, to provide insight into specific features of basidiomycetes with respect to plant polysaccharide degradation.

Plant-Polysaccharide-Degrading Enzymes from Basidiomycetes

High Speed Atomic Force Microscopy Visualizes Processive Movement of Trichoderma reesei Cellobiohydrolase I on Crystalline Cellulose

Engineering the exo-loop of Trichoderma reesei cellobiohydrolase, Cel7A. A comparison with Phanerochaete chrysosporium Cel7D.

A new affinity ligand for the isolation of a single 'feruloyl esterase' (FAE-III) from Aspergillus niger.

The exo-loop of Trichoderma reesei cellobiohydrolase Cel7A forms the roof of the active site tunnel at the catalytic centre. Mutants were designed to study the role of this loop in crystalline cellulose degradation. A hydrogen bond to substrate made by a tyrosine at the tip of the loop was removed by the Y247F mutation. The mobility of the loop was reduced by introducing a new disulphide bridge in the mutant D241C/D249C. The tip of the loop was deleted in mutant Δ(G245-Y252). No major structural disturbances were observed in the mutant enzymes, nor was the thermostability of the enzyme affected by the mutations.

The Y247F mutation caused a slight kcat reduction on 4-nitrophenyl lactoside, but only a small effect on cellulose hydrolysis. Deletion of the tip of the loop increased both kcat and KM and gave reduced product inhibition. Increased activity was observed on amorphous cellulose, while only half the original activity remained on crystalline cellulose. Stabilisation of the exo-loop by the disulphide bridge enhanced the activity on both amorphous and crystalline cellulose. The ratio Glc2/(Glc3+Glc1) released from cellulose, which is indicative of processive action, was highest with Tr Cel7A wild-type enzyme and smallest with the deletion mutant on both substrates. Based on these data it seems that the exo-loop of Tr Cel7A has evolved to facilitate processive crystalline cellulose degradation, which does not require significant conformational changes of this loop.

Yongxin Zhao

Papers

Engineering the exo-loop of Trichoderma reesei cellobiohydrolase, Cel7A. A comparison with Phanerochaete chrysosporium Cel7D.

A new affinity ligand for the isolation of a single 'feruloyl esterase' (FAE-III) from Aspergillus niger.

Engineering the Exo-loop of Cellobiohydrolase, Cel7A. A comparison with Cel7D