Chitin is the most abundant natural amino polysaccharide and is estimated to be produced annually almost as much as cellulose. It has become of great interest not only as an underutilized resource, but also as a new functional material of high potential in various fields, and recent progress in chitin chemistry is quite noteworthy. The purpose of this review is to take a closer look at chitin and chitosan applications. Based on current research and existing products, some new and futuristic approaches in this fascinating area are thoroughly discussed.

A review of chitin and chitosan applications

Materials with nanoscopic dimensions not only have potential technological applications in areas such as device technology and drug delivery but also are of fundamental interest in that the properties of a material can change in this regime of transition between the bulk and molecular scales. In this article, a relatively new method for preparing nanomaterials, membrane-based synthesis, is reviewed. This method entails synthesis of the desired material within the pores of a nanoporous membrane. Because the membranes used contain cylindrical pores of uniform diameter, monodisperse nanocylinders of the desired material, whose dimensions can be carefully controlled, are obtained. This "template" method has been used to prepare polymers, metals, semiconductors, and other materials on a nanoscopic scale.

https://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/266/5193/1961.full.pdf

Nanomaterials: a membrane-based synthetic approach.

The intrinsic limits of conventional cancer therapies prompted the development and application of various nanotechnologies for more effective and safer cancer treatment, herein referred to as cancer nanomedicine. Considerable technological success has been achieved in this field, but the main obstacles to nanomedicine becoming a new paradigm in cancer therapy stem from the complexities and heterogeneity of tumour biology, an incomplete understanding of nano-bio interactions and the challenges regarding chemistry, manufacturing and controls required for clinical translation and commercialization. This Review highlights the progress, challenges and opportunities in cancer nanomedicine and discusses novel engineering approaches that capitalize on our growing understanding of tumour biology and nano-bio interactions to develop more effective nanotherapeutics for cancer patients.

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Cancer nanomedicine: progress, challenges and opportunities.

In the domain of health, one important challenge is the efficient delivery of drugs in the body using non-toxic nanocarriers. Most of the existing carrier materials show poor drug loading (usually less than 5 wt% of the transported drug versus the carrier material) and/or rapid release of the proportion of the drug that is simply adsorbed (or anchored) at the external surface of the nanocarrier. In this context, porous hybrid solids, with the ability to tune their structures and porosities for better drug interactions and high loadings, are well suited to serve as nanocarriers for delivery and imaging applications. Here we show that specific non-toxic porous iron(III)-based metal-organic frameworks with engineered cores and surfaces, as well as imaging properties, function as superior nanocarriers for efficient controlled delivery of challenging antitumoural and retroviral drugs (that is, busulfan, azidothymidine triphosphate, doxorubicin or cidofovir) against cancer and AIDS. In addition to their high loadings, they also potentially associate therapeutics and diagnostics, thus opening the way for theranostics, or personalized patient treatments.

Porous metal–organic-framework nanoscale carriers as a potential platform for drug delivery and imaging

Block copolymer micelles for drug delivery: design, characterization and biological significance

Injectable nanoparticulate carriers have important potential applications such as site-specific drug delivery or medical imaging. Conventional carriers, however, cannot generally be used because they are eliminated by the reticulo-endothelial system within seconds or minutes after intravenous injection. To address these limitations, monodisperse biodegradable nanospheres were developed from amphiphilic copolymers composed of two biocompatible blocks. The nanospheres exhibited dramatically increased blood circulation times and reduced liver accumulation in mice. Furthermore, they entrapped up to 45 percent by weight of the drug in the dense core in a one-step procedure and could be freeze-dried and easily redispersed without additives in aqueous solutions.

https://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/263/5153/1600.full.pdf

Biodegradable long-circulating polymeric nanospheres

Particles are provided that are not rapidly cleared from the blood stream by the macrophages of the reticuloendothelial system, and that can be modified to achieve variable release rates or to target specific cells or organs. The particles have a biodegradable solid core containing a biologically active material and poly(alkylene glycol) moieties on the surface. The terminal hydroxyl group of the poly(alkylene glycol) can be used to covalently attach onto the surface of the particles biologically active molecules, including antibodies targeted to specific cells or organs, or molecules affecting the charge, lipophilicity or hydrophilicity of the particle. The surface of the particle can also be modified by attaching biodegradable polymers of the same structure as those forming the core of the particles.

Biodegradable injectable nanoparticles

Particles are provided that are not rapidly cleared from the blood stream by the macrophages of the reticuloendothelial system, and that can be modified to achieve variable release rates or to target specific cells or organs. The particles have a core of a multiblock copolymer formed by covalently linking a multifunctional compound with one or more hydrophobic polymers and one or more hydrophilic polymers, and contain a biologically active material. The terminal hydroxyl group of the poly(alkylene glycol) can be used to covalently attach onto the surface of the particles biologically active molecules, including antibodies targeted to specific cells or organs, or molecules affecting the charge, lipophilicity or hydrophilicity of the particle. The surface of the particle can also be modified by attaching biodegradable polymers of the same structure as those forming the core of the particles. The typical size of the particles is between 180 nm and 10,000 nm, preferably between 180 nm and 240 nm, although microparticles can also be formed as described herein. The particles can include magnetic particles or radiopaque materials for diagnostic imaging, biologically active molecules to be delivered to a site, or compounds for targeting the particles. The particles have a prolonged half-life in the blood compared to particles not containing poly(alkylene glycol) moieties on the surface.

Nanoparticles and microparticles of non-linear hydrophilic-hydrophobic multiblock copolymers

PEG-coated nanospheres from amphiphilic diblock and multiblock copolymers: Investigation of their drug encapsulation and release characteristics1

Injectable nanoparticles or microparticles are provided that are not rapidly cleared from the blood stream by the macrophages of the reticuloendothelial system, and that can be modified as necessary to achieve variable release rates or to target specific cells or organs as desired. The terminal hydroxyl group of the poly(alkylene glycol) can be used to covalently attach onto the surface of the injectable particles biologically active molecules, including antibodies targeted to specific cells or organs, or molecules affecting the charge, lipophilicity or hydrophilicity of the particle. The surface of the particle can also be modified by attaching biodegradable polymers of the same structure as those forming the core of the injectable particles. The injectable particles include magnetic particles or radioopaque materials for diagnostic imaging.

Yoshiharu Minamitake

Papers

Biodegradable long-circulating polymeric nanospheres

Biodegradable injectable nanoparticles

Nanoparticles and microparticles of non-linear hydrophilic-hydrophobic multiblock copolymers

PEG-coated nanospheres from amphiphilic diblock and multiblock copolymers: Investigation of their drug encapsulation and release characteristics1

Biodegradable injectable particles for imaging