It has long been a global imperative to develop high‐energy‐density lithium‐ion batteries (LIBs) to meet the ever‐growing electric vehicle market. One of the most effective strategies for boosting the energy density of LIBs is to increase the output voltage, which largely depends upon the cathode materials. As the most‐promising cathodes for high‐voltage LIBs (>4 V vs Li/Li+), four major categories of cathodes including lithium‐rich layered oxides, nickel‐rich layered oxides, spinel oxides, and high‐voltage polyanionic compounds still encounter severe challenges to realize the improvement of output voltage while maintaining high capacity, fast rate capability, and long service life. This review focuses on the key links in the development of high‐voltage cathode materials from the lab to industrialization. First, the failure mechanisms of the four kinds of materials are clarified, and the optimization strategies, particularly solutions that are easy for large‐scale production, are considered. Then, to bridge the gap between lab and industry, the cost management, safety assessment, practical battery‐performance evaluation, and sustainability of the battery technologies, are discussed. Finally, tough challenges and promising strategies for the commercialization of high‐voltage cathode materials are summarized to promote the large‐scale application of LIBs with high energy densities.

Building Practical High‐Voltage Cathode Materials for Lithium‐Ion Batteries

It has long been a global imperative to develop high-energy density lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) to meet the ever-growing electric vehicle market. One of the most effective strategies for boosting the energy density of LIBs is to increase the output voltage, which largely depends upon the cathode materials. As the most promising cathodes for high-voltage LIBs (> 4 V versus Li/Li+ ), four major categories of cathodes including lithium-rich layered oxides, nickel-rich layered oxides, spinel oxides, and high-voltage polyanionic compounds still encounter severe challenges to realize the improvement of output voltage while maintaining high capacity, fast rate capability and long service life. This review focuses on the key links in the development of the high-voltage cathode materials from lab to industrialization. Firstly, the failure mechanisms of the four kinds of materials are clarified, and the optimization strategies, particularly the solutions which are easy for large-scale production, are focused. Then, to bridge the gap between lab and industry, the cost management, safety assessment, practical battery performance evaluation, and sustainability of battery technologies, are discussed, too. Finally, tough challenges and promising strategies for the commercialization of high-voltage cathode materials are summarized to promote the large-scale application of LIBs with high energy densities. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Building Practical High‐Voltage Cathode Materials for Lithium‐Ion Batteries (Adv. Mater. 52/2022)

The limited fossil fuel supply toward carbon neutrality has driven tremendous efforts to replace fuel vehicles by electric ones. The recycling of retired power batteries, a core energy supply component of electric vehicles (EVs), is necessary for developing a sustainable EV industry. Here, we comprehensively review the current status and technical challenges of recycling lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries. The review focuses on: 1) environmental risks of LFP batteries, 2) cascade utilization, 3) separation of cathode material and aluminium foil, 4) lithium (Li) extraction technologies, and 5) regeneration and transformation of cathode materials. Detailed analyses are elaborated with case examples and technical challenges. Our critical analysis demonstrates that compared with retired lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxide (NCM) batteries, LFP batteries do not contain the high-value elements such as Co and Ni, so the economic drive for LFP recycling is compromised although future market prospects are substantial. It is of great practical significance to develop low-carbon and cost-effective Li extraction technologies and regeneration processes for cathode materials to ensure a sustainable and stable development of the LFP battery and EV industry. 

Recycling of lithium iron phosphate batteries: Status, technologies, challenges, and prospects

Domestic flow of e-waste in São Paulo, Brazil: Characterization to support public policies.

Due to its high theoretical capacity (820 mAh g-1), low standard electrode potential (- 0.76 V vs. SHE), excellent stability in aqueous solutions, low cost, environmental friendliness and intrinsically high safety, zinc (Zn)-based batteries have attracted much attention in developing new energy storage devices. In Zn battery system, the battery performance is significantly affected by the solid electrolyte interface (SEI), which is controlled by electrode and electrolyte, and attracts dendrite growth, electrochemical stability window range, metallic Zn anode corrosion and passivation, and electrolyte mutations. Therefore, the design of SEI is decisive for the overall performance of Zn battery systems. This paper summarizes the formation mechanism, the types and characteristics, and the characterization techniques associated with SEI. Meanwhile, we analyze the influence of SEI on battery performance, and put forward the design strategies of SEI. Finally, the future research of SEI in Zn battery system is prospected to seize the nature of SEI, improve the battery performance and promote the large-scale application. 

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Solid Electrolyte Interface in Zn-Based Battery Systems

An overview of global power lithium-ion batteries and associated critical metal recycling

The environmental and economic impacts posed by waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) make an effective collection and recycling scheme necessary for developing countries. Currently, developing countries in the Asia-Pacific regions are highly variable in terms of their present state of WEEE management, due to different economic conditions and levels of management. In this paper, we surveyed existing WEEE collection and recycling system in three Asia-Pacific developing countries China, Sri Lanka, and Pakistan, using SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) Analysis, analyzed key factors for an effective formal collection and recycling system, and identified priority fields that can be targeted by governments. Key factors that were considered include: government involvement, legislation, functional mechanisms, the presence/absence of advanced technology and facilities. Priorities for China were identified, including: expansion of WEEE scope that would be covered by the formal collection and recycling scheme, continued WEEE flow to the formal WEEE recycling sector, and enhancing law enforcement. For Sri Lanka, putting into place specific WEEE legislation and policies, establishing effective facilities for collection and recycling of a greater range of WEEE types, and the enhancement of pollution control are priorities. In Pakistan, commencement of government involvement and policy interventions on WEEE are considered to be of priority. General policy recommendations were also proposed for reference.

Youping Miao

Papers

An overview of global power lithium-ion batteries and associated critical metal recycling

Study on weee collection and recycling scheme in typical asia-pacific countries

High concentration from resources to market heightens risk for power lithium-ion battery supply chains globally