Abiotic Stress Signaling and Responses in Plants

Abscisic acid (ABA) regulates numerous developmental processes and adaptive stress responses in plants. Many ABA signaling components have been identified, but their interconnections and a consensus on the structure of the ABA signaling network have eluded researchers. Recently, several advances have led to the identification of ABA receptors and their three-dimensional structures, and an understanding of how key regulatory phosphatase and kinase activities are controlled by ABA. A new model for ABA action has been proposed and validated, in which the soluble PYR/PYL/RCAR receptors function at the apex of a negative regulatory pathway to directly regulate PP2C phosphatases, which in turn directly regulate SnRK2 kinases. This model unifies many previously defined signaling components and highlights the importance of future work focused on defining the direct targets of SnRK2s and PP2Cs, dissecting the mechanisms of hormone interactions (i.e., cross talk) and defining connections between this new negative regulatory pathway and other factors implicated in ABA signaling.

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Abscisic Acid: Emergence of a Core Signaling Network

Type 2C protein phosphatases (PP2Cs) are vitally involved in abscisic acid (ABA) signaling. Here, we show that a synthetic growth inhibitor called pyrabactin functions as a selective ABA agonist. Pyrabactin acts through PYRABACTIN RESISTANCE 1 (PYR1), the founding member of a family of START proteins called PYR/PYLs, which are necessary for both pyrabactin and ABA signaling in vivo. We show that ABA binds to PYR1, which in turn binds to and inhibits PP2Cs. We conclude that PYR/PYLs are ABA receptors functioning at the apex of a negative regulatory pathway that controls ABA signaling by inhibiting PP2Cs. Our results illustrate the power of the chemical genetic approach for sidestepping genetic redundancy.

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Abscisic Acid Inhibits Type 2C Protein Phosphatases via the PYR/PYL Family of START Proteins

Until recently, most studies on the role of hormones in plant-pathogen interactions focused on salicylic acid (SA), jasmonic acid (JA), and ethylene (ET). It is now clear that pathogen-induced modulation of signaling via other hormones contributes to virulence. A picture is emerging of complex crosstalk and induced hormonal changes that modulate disease and resistance, with outcomes dependent on pathogen lifestyles and the genetic constitution of the host. Recent progress has revealed intriguing similarities between hormone signaling mechanisms, with gene induction responses often achieved by derepression. Here, we report on recent advances, updating current knowledge on classical defense hormones SA, JA, and ET, and the roles of auxin, abscisic acid (ABA), cytokinins (CKs), and brassinosteroids in molding plant-pathogen interactions. We highlight an emerging theme that positive and negative regulators of these disparate hormone signaling pathways are crucial regulatory targets of hormonal crosstalk in disease and defense.

Hormone Crosstalk in Plant Disease and Defense: More Than Just JASMONATE-SALICYLATE Antagonism

Stomatal pores are formed by pairs of specialized epidermal guard cells and serve as major gateways for both CO(2) influx into plants from the atmosphere and transpirational water loss of plants. Because they regulate stomatal pore apertures via integration of both endogenous hormonal stimuli and environmental signals, guard cells have been highly developed as a model system to dissect the dynamics and mechanisms of plant-cell signaling. The stress hormone ABA and elevated levels of CO(2) activate complex signaling pathways in guard cells that are mediated by kinases/phosphatases, secondary messengers, and ion channel regulation. Recent research in guard cells has led to a new hypothesis for how plants achieve specificity in intracellular calcium signaling: CO(2) and ABA enhance (prime) the calcium sensitivity of downstream calcium-signaling mechanisms. Recent progress in identification of early stomatal signaling components are reviewed here, including ABA receptors and CO(2)-binding response proteins, as well as systems approaches that advance our understanding of guard cell-signaling mechanisms.

Guard Cell Signal Transduction Network: Advances in Understanding Abscisic Acid, CO2, and Ca2+ Signaling

The plant hormone abscisic acid (ABA) acts as a developmental signal and as an integrator of environmental cues such as drought and cold. Key players in ABA signal transduction include the type 2C protein phosphatases (PP2Cs) ABI1 and ABI2, which act by negatively regulating ABA responses. In this study, we identify interactors of ABI1 and ABI2 which we have named regulatory components of ABA receptor (RCARs). In Arabidopsis, RCARs belong to a family with 14 members that share structural similarity with class 10 pathogen-related proteins. RCAR1 was shown to bind ABA, to mediate ABA-dependent inactivation of ABI1 or ABI2 in vitro, and to antagonize PP2C action in planta. Other RCARs also mediated ABA-dependent regulation of ABI1 and ABI2, consistent with a combinatorial assembly of receptor complexes.

http://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/324/5930/1064.full.pdf

Regulators of PP2C Phosphatase Activity Function as Abscisic Acid Sensors

ABA Receptor Rumbled? The plant hormone abscisic acid (ABA) is critical for normal development and for mediating plant responses to stressful environmental conditions. Now, two papers present analyses of candidate ABA receptors (see the news story by Pennisi). Ma et al. (p. 1064; published online 30 April) and Park et al. (p. 1068, published online 30 April) used independent strategies to search for proteins that physically interact with ABI family phosphatase components of the ABA response signaling pathway. Both groups identified different members of the same family of proteins, which appear to interact with ABI proteins to form a heterocomplex that can act as the ABA receptor. The variety of both families suggests that the ABA receptor may not be one entity, but rather a class of closely related complexes, which may explain previous difficulties in establishing its identity. Links between two ancient multimember protein families signal responses to the plant hormone abscisic acid. The plant hormone abscisic acid (ABA) acts as a developmental signal and as an integrator of environmental cues such as drought and cold. Key players in ABA signal transduction include the type 2C protein phosphatases (PP2Cs) ABI1 and ABI2, which act by negatively regulating ABA responses. In this study, we identify interactors of ABI1 and ABI2 which we have named regulatory components of ABA receptor (RCARs). In Arabidopsis, RCARs belong to a family with 14 members that share structural similarity with class 10 pathogen-related proteins. RCAR1 was shown to bind ABA, to mediate ABA-dependent inactivation of ABI1 or ABI2 in vitro, and to antagonize PP2C action in planta. Other RCARs also mediated ABA-dependent regulation of ABI1 and ABI2, consistent with a combinatorial assembly of receptor complexes.

Supporting Online Material for Regulators of PP2C Phosphatase Activity Function as Abscisic Acid Sensors

The recent discovery of a variety of receptors has led to new models for hormone perception in plants. In the case of the hormone abscisic acid (ABA), which regulates plant responses to abiotic stress, perception seems to occur both at the plasma membrane and in the cytosol. The cytosolic receptors for ABA have recently been identified as complexes between protein phosphatases 2C (PP2C) and regulatory components (RCAR/PYR/PYL) that bind ABA. Binding of ABA to the receptor complexes inactivates the PP2Cs, thereby activating the large variety of physiological processes regulated by ABA. The Arabidopsis genome encodes 13 homologues of RCAR1 and approximately 80 PP2Cs, of which six in clade A have been identified as negative regulators of ABA responses. In this study we characterize a novel member of the RCAR family, RCAR3. RCAR3 was identified in a screen for interactors of the PP2Cs ABI1 and ABI2, which are key regulators of ABA responses. RCAR3 was shown to repress ABI1 and ABI2 in vitro, and to stimulate ABA signalling in protoplast cells. RCAR3 conferred greater ABA sensitivity to the PP2C regulation than RCAR1, whereas stereo-selectivity for (S)-ABA was less stringent with RCAR3 as compared with RCAR1. In addition, regulation of the protein phosphatase activity by RCAR1 and RCAR3 was more sensitive to ABA for ABI1 than for ABI2. Based on the differences we have observed in transcriptional regulation and biochemical properties, we propose a model whereby differential expression of the co-receptors and combinatorial assembly of the receptor complexes act in concert to modulate and fine-tune ABA responses.

https://www.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1365-313X.2009.04025.x

Closely related receptor complexes differ in their ABA selectivity and sensitivity

MdIPT8, an isopentenyl transferase enzyme, enhances the resistance of apple to Colletotrichum gloeosporioides infection

As an effective tool for genetically modified organism (GMO) quantification in complex matrices, digital PCR (dPCR) has been widely used for the quantification of genetically modified (GM) canola events; however, little is known about the quantification of GM canola events using endogenous reference gene (ERG) characteristics by dPCR. To calculate and quantify the content of GM canola using endogenous reference gene (ERG) characteristics, the suitability of several ERGs of canola, such as cruciferin A (CruA), acetyl-CoA carboxylase (BnAcc), phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEP), cruciferin storage (BnC1), oleoyl hydrolase (Fat(A)), and high-mobility-group protein I/Y (HMG-I/Y), was investigated by droplet dPCR. BnAcc and BnC1 were more specific and stable in copy number in the genome of Brassica napus L. than the other genes. By performing intra-laboratory validation of the suitability of ERG characteristics for the quantification of GM canola events, the ddPCR methods for BnAcc and BnC1 were comprehensively demonstrated in dPCR assays. The methods could provide technical support for GM labeling regulations.

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Yue Ma

Papers

Regulators of PP2C Phosphatase Activity Function as Abscisic Acid Sensors

Supporting Online Material for Regulators of PP2C Phosphatase Activity Function as Abscisic Acid Sensors

Closely related receptor complexes differ in their ABA selectivity and sensitivity

MdIPT8, an isopentenyl transferase enzyme, enhances the resistance of apple to Colletotrichum gloeosporioides infection

Establishment and Validation of Reference Genes of Brassica napus L. for Digital PCR Detection of Genetically Modified Canola