抗原变异可使得多种致病微生物易于逃避宿主免疫应答。表达在感染红细胞表面的恶性疟原虫红细胞表面蛋白1（PfPMP1）与感染红细胞、内皮细胞、树突状细胞以及胎盘的单个或多个受体作用，在黏附及免疫逃避中起关键的作用。每个单倍体基因组var基因家族编码约60种成员，通过启动转录不同的var基因变异体为抗原变异提供了分子基础。

疟原虫var基因转换速率变化导致抗原变异[英]／Paul H, Robert P, Christodoulou Z, et al//Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A

BACKGROUND Materials by design is an appealing idea that is very hard to realize in practice. Combining the best of different ingredients in one ultimate material is a task for which we currently have no general solution. However, we do have some successful examples to draw upon: Composite materials and III-V heterostructures have revolutionized many aspects of our lives. Still, we need a general strategy to solve the problem of mixing and matching crystals with different properties, creating combinations with predetermined attributes and functionalities. ADVANCES Two-dimensional (2D) materials offer a platform that allows creation of heterostructures with a variety of properties. One-atom-thick crystals now comprise a large family of these materials, collectively covering a very broad range of properties. The first material to be included was graphene, a zero-overlap semimetal. The family of 2D crystals has grown to includes metals (e.g., NbSe 2 ), semiconductors (e.g., MoS 2 ), and insulators [e.g., hexagonal boron nitride (hBN)]. Many of these materials are stable at ambient conditions, and we have come up with strategies for handling those that are not. Surprisingly, the properties of such 2D materials are often very different from those of their 3D counterparts. Furthermore, even the study of familiar phenomena (like superconductivity or ferromagnetism) in the 2D case, where there is no long-range order, raises many thought-provoking questions. A plethora of opportunities appear when we start to combine several 2D crystals in one vertical stack. Held together by van der Waals forces (the same forces that hold layered materials together), such heterostructures allow a far greater number of combinations than any traditional growth method. As the family of 2D crystals is expanding day by day, so too is the complexity of the heterostructures that could be created with atomic precision. When stacking different crystals together, the synergetic effects become very important. In the first-order approximation, charge redistribution might occur between the neighboring (and even more distant) crystals in the stack. Neighboring crystals can also induce structural changes in each other. Furthermore, such changes can be controlled by adjusting the relative orientation between the individual elements. Such heterostructures have already led to the observation of numerous exciting physical phenomena. Thus, spectrum reconstruction in graphene interacting with hBN allowed several groups to study the Hofstadter butterfly effect and topological currents in such a system. The possibility of positioning crystals in very close (but controlled) proximity to one another allows for the study of tunneling and drag effects. The use of semiconducting monolayers leads to the creation of optically active heterostructures. The extended range of functionalities of such heterostructures yields a range of possible applications. Now the highest-mobility graphene transistors are achieved by encapsulating graphene with hBN. Photovoltaic and light-emitting devices have been demonstrated by combining optically active semiconducting layers and graphene as transparent electrodes. OUTLOOK Currently, most 2D heterostructures are composed by direct stacking of individual monolayer flakes of different materials. Although this method allows ultimate flexibility, it is slow and cumbersome. Thus, techniques involving transfer of large-area crystals grown by chemical vapor deposition (CVD), direct growth of heterostructures by CVD or physical epitaxy, or one-step growth in solution are being developed. Currently, we are at the same level as we were with graphene 10 years ago: plenty of interesting science and unclear prospects for mass production. Given the fast progress of graphene technology over the past few years, we can expect similar advances in the production of the heterostructures, making the science and applications more achievable.

2D materials and van der Waals heterostructures

Since the discovery of mechanically exfoliated graphene in 2004, research on ultrathin two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials has grown exponentially in the fields of condensed matter physics, material science, chemistry, and nanotechnology. Highlighting their compelling physical, chemical, electronic, and optical properties, as well as their various potential applications, in this Review, we summarize the state-of-art progress on the ultrathin 2D nanomaterials with a particular emphasis on their recent advances. First, we introduce the unique advances on ultrathin 2D nanomaterials, followed by the description of their composition and crystal structures. The assortments of their synthetic methods are then summarized, including insights on their advantages and limitations, alongside some recommendations on suitable characterization techniques. We also discuss in detail the utilization of these ultrathin 2D nanomaterials for wide ranges of potential applications among the electronics/optoelectronics, electrocat...

Recent Advances in Ultrathin Two-Dimensional Nanomaterials

Two-dimensional layered materials (2DLMs) have been a central focus of materials research since the discovery of graphene just over a decade ago. Each layer in 2DLMs consists of a covalently bonded, dangling-bond-free lattice and is weakly bound to neighbouring layers by van der Waals interactions. This makes it feasible to isolate, mix and match highly disparate atomic layers to create a wide range of van der Waals heterostructures (vdWHs) without the constraints of lattice matching and processing compatibility. Exploiting the novel properties in these vdWHs with diverse layering of metals, semiconductors or insulators, new designs of electronic devices emerge, including tunnelling transistors, barristors and flexible electronics, as well as optoelectronic devices, including photodetectors, photovoltaics and light-emitting devices with unprecedented characteristics or unique functionalities. We review the recent progress and challenges, and offer our perspective on the exploration of 2DLM-based vdWHs for future application in electronics and optoelectronics. With a dangling-bond-free surface, two dimensional layered materials (2DLMs) can enable the creation of diverse van der Waals heterostructures (vdWHs) without the conventional constraint of lattice matching or process compatibility. This Review discusses the recent advances in exploring 2DLM vdWHs for future electronics and optoelectronics.

Van der Waals heterostructures and devices

Graphene-based materials exhibit remarkable electronic, optical, and mechanical properties, which has resulted in both high scientific interest and huge potential for a variety of applications. Furthermore, the family of graphene-based materials is growing because of developments in preparation methods. Raman spectroscopy is a versatile tool to identify and characterize the chemical and physical properties of these materials, both at the laboratory and mass-production scale. This technique is so important that most of the papers published concerning these materials contain at least one Raman spectrum. Thus, here, we systematically review the developments in Raman spectroscopy of graphene-based materials from both fundamental research and practical (i.e., device applications) perspectives. We describe the essential Raman scattering processes of the entire first- and second-order modes in intrinsic graphene. Furthermore, the shear, layer-breathing, G and 2D modes of multilayer graphene with different stacking orders are discussed. Techniques to determine the number of graphene layers, to probe resonance Raman spectra of monolayer and multilayer graphenes and to obtain Raman images of graphene-based materials are also presented. The extensive capabilities of Raman spectroscopy for the investigation of the fundamental properties of graphene under external perturbations are described, which have also been extended to other graphene-based materials, such as graphene quantum dots, carbon dots, graphene oxide, nanoribbons, chemical vapor deposition-grown and SiC epitaxially grown graphene flakes, composites, and graphene-based van der Waals heterostructures. These fundamental properties have been used to probe the states, effects, and mechanisms of graphene materials present in the related heterostructures and devices. We hope that this review will be beneficial in all the aspects of graphene investigations, from basic research to material synthesis and device applications.

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Raman spectroscopy of graphene-based materials and its applications in related devices.

P-n junctions based on vertically stacked van der Waals (vdW) materials have attracted a great deal of attention and may open up unforeseen opportunities in electronics and optoelectronics. However, due to the lack of intrinsic p-type vdW materials, most previous studies generally adopted electrical gating, special electrode contacts, or chemical doping methods to realize p-n vdW junctions. GaTe is an intrinsic p-type vdW material with a relatively high charge density, and it has a direct band gap that is independent of thickness. Here, we report the construction of ultrathin and tunable p-GaTe/n-MoS2 vdW heterostructure with high photovoltaic and photodetecting performance. The rectification ratio, external quantum efficiency, and photoresponsivity are as high as 4 × 105, 61.68%, and 21.83 AW–1, respectively. In particular, the detectivity is up to 8.4 × 1013 Jones, which is even higher than commercial Si, InGaAs photodetectors. This study demonstrates the promising potential of p-GaTe/n-MoS2 heterostruc...

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Tunable GaTe-MoS2 van der Waals p–n Junctions with Novel Optoelectronic Performance

The desire for sustainable and clean energy future continues to be the concern of the scientific community. Researchers are incessantly targeting the development of scalable and abundant electro- or photo-catalysts for water splitting. Owing to their suitable band-gap and excellent stability, an enormous amount of transition-metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) with hierarchical nanostructures have been extensively explored. Herein, we present an overview of the recent research progresses in the design, characterization and applications of the TMD-based electro- or photo-catalysts for hydrogen and oxygen evolution. Emphasis is given to the layered and pyrite-phase structured TMDs encompassing semiconducting and metallic nanomaterials. Illustrative results and the future prospects are pointed out. This review will provide the readers with insight into the state-of-the-art research progresses in TMD based nanomaterials for water splitting.

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Recent advances in transition-metal dichalcogenide based nanomaterials for water splitting

An ultrathin HfS2 -based ultrasensitive phototransistor is systematically studied. Au-contacted HfS2 phototransistors with ideal thickness ranging from 7 to 12 nm exhibit a high on/off ratio of ca. 10(7) , ultrahigh photoresponsivity over 890 A W(-1) , and photogain over 2300. Moreover, the response time is strongly dependent on the back-gate voltage and shows a reverse trend for Au and Cr metals.

Ultrasensitive Phototransistors Based on Few-Layered HfS2.

Holding novel physical properties, high flexibility and strong integration ability with Si-based electronic devices, two-dimensional (2D) non-layered materials have received considerable attentions in recent years. To achieve the 2D anisotropic growth, various strategies have been developed. And a variety of applications have been demonstrated. This review provides an overview on the recent progress of this material family. The scope will cover the preparation strategies, including dry methods and wet chemical approaches, as well as the applications in catalysis, energy conversion and storage, optoelectronic devices and topological crystalline insulators. Conclusion and future perspectives are also given.

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Two-Dimensional Non-Layered Materials: Synthesis, Properties and Applications

Group III–VI compounds MIIIXVI (M = Ga, In; X = S, Se, Te) are one class of important 2D layered materials and are currently attracting increasing interest due to their unique electronic and optoelectronic properties and their great potential applications in various other fields. Similar to 2D layered transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs), MIIIXVI also have the significant merits of ultrathin thickness, ultrahigh surface-to-volume ratio, and high compatibility with flexible devices. More impressively, in contrast with TMDCs, MIIIXVI demonstrate many superior properties, such as direct band gap electronic structure, high carrier mobility, rare p-type electronic behaviors, high charge density, and so on. These unique characteristics cause high-performance device applications in electronics, optoelectronics, and optics. In this review, we aim to provide a summary of the state-of–the-art of research activities in 2D layered MIIIXVI materials. The scope of the review covers the synthesis and properties of 2D layered MIIIXVI materials and their van der Waals heterostructures. We especially focus on the applications in electronics and optoelectronics. Moreover, the review concludes with some perspectives on future developments in this field.

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Yun Huang

Papers

Tunable GaTe-MoS2 van der Waals p–n Junctions with Novel Optoelectronic Performance

Recent advances in transition-metal dichalcogenide based nanomaterials for water splitting

Ultrasensitive Phototransistors Based on Few-Layered HfS2.

Two-Dimensional Non-Layered Materials: Synthesis, Properties and Applications

Synthesis, properties and applications of 2D layered MIIIXVI (M = Ga, In; X = S, Se, Te) materials