Environmental pollution has increased many folds in recent years and in some places has reached levels that are toxic to living things. Among pollutant types, toxic heavy metals and metalloids are among the chemicals that pose the highest threat to biological systems (Jjemba 2004). Unlike organic pollutants, which are biodegradable, heavy metals are not degraded into less hazardous end products (Gupta et al. 2001). Low concentrations of some heavy metals are essential for life, but some of them like Hg, As, Pb and Cd are biologically non-essential and very toxic to living organisms. Even the essential metals may become toxic if they are present at a concentration above the permissible level (Puttaiah and Kiran 2008). For example, exposure to Zn and Fe oxides produce gastric disorder and vomiting, irritation of the skin and mucous membranes. Intake of Ni, Cr, Pb, Cd and Cu causes heart problems, leukemia and cancer, while Co and Mg can cause anemia and hypertension (Drasch et al. 2006). Similarly, various studies indicated that overexposure to heavy metals in air can cause cardiovascular disorders (Miller et al. 2007; Schwartz 2001), asthma (Wiwatanadate and Liwsrisakun 2011), bronchitis/emphysema (Pope 2000), and other respiratory diseases (Dominici et al. 2006).

Toxic Metal Pollution in Pakistan and Its Possible Risks to Public Health

This study was conducted to determine the concentration of toxic metals in soil, forage and blood plasma of lactating and non-lactating buffaloes in the district Jhang, Punjab, Pakistan. Soil samples were collected from varying distances from the road side. Plasma separation was achieved by centrifugation. The concentration of arsenic (As), selenium (Se), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu) and cobalt (Co) were determined by using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer. The results of the study showed that the mean As, Se and Cd concentrations in soil samples were lower while Cr, Fe, Zn, Cu and Co were higher than the official guidelines. In plasma samples, mean concentration values of Co, Zn, Fe, Cd, Se and As were lower while Cu and Cr were higher than the recommended concentrations. According to the results of the study there was no potential exposure of toxicity in buffaloes of the study area.

Potential Toxic Metal Accumulation in Soil, Forage and Blood Plasma of Buffaloes Sampled from Jhang, Pakistan

Plant-based foods satisfy more than 70% of the human energy and nutrition requirements. However, such foods may be contaminated by heavy metal(loid)s. The dietary exposure to excessive levels of these contaminants is detrimental to human health. In this chapter, we have reviewed the reported contamination levels of arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), mercury (Hg) and nickel (Ni) in cereals, vegetables, fruits, nuts, pulses and plant oils. The reported concentrations in different plant-based foods were up to 2.9 mg As kg−1, 24 mg Cd kg−1, 61 mg Pb kg−1, 0.10 mg Hg kg−1 and 506 mg Ni kg−1. Concentrations of the studied contaminants in plant oils were within permissible levels in all the listed studies. Moreover, Hg was within permissible levels in all the studies. However, some samples of vegetables, fruits, cereals, pulses and nuts were reported to be contaminated by As, Cd, Pb and Ni to levels toxic to humans. The contamination levels in plant-based foods were related to contamination of agricultural soils, irrigation waters, atmosphere and crop inputs. The occurrence of contaminated plant-based foods is more common in the densely populated developing and underdeveloped countries in the world. Wastewater treatment, soil remediation and control of the emission of air pollutants have become increasingly important for sustainable agriculture. In the absence of effective remediation, food plants should not be grown in contaminated areas or near the sources of contamination.

Arsenic and Heavy Metal (Cadmium, Lead, Mercury and Nickel) Contamination in Plant-Based Foods

Combined contamination of lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), and arsenic (As) in soils especially wastewater-irrigated soil causes environmental concern. The aim of this study is to develop a soil amendment for simultaneous immobilization of Pb, Cd, and As in combinative contaminated soil. A soil amendment of iron hydroxyl phosphate (FeHP) was prepared and characterized, and its potential application in simultaneous immobilization of Pb, Cd, and As in combined contaminated soil from wastewater-irrigated area was evaluated. The effects of FeHP dosage, reaction time, and soil moisture on Pb, Cd, and As immobilization in the soil were examined. The immobilization efficiencies of Pb, Cd, and As generally increased with the increasing of FeHP dosage. With FeHP dosage of 10 %, the immobilization percentages of NaHCO3-extractable As and DTPA-extractable Pb and Cd reached 69, 59, and 44 %, respectively. The equilibrium time required for immobilization of these contaminants was in the following order: NaHCO3-extractable As (0.25 days) < DTPA-extractable Cd(3 days) < DTPA-extractable Pb (7 days). However, the immobilization efficiencies of Pb, Cd, and As have not changed much under soil moisture varied from 20 to 100 %. According to the results of the sequential extraction, the percentages of Pb, Cd, and As in residual fractions increased after the application of FeHP amendment, while their percentages in exchangeable fractions decreased, illustrating that FeHP can effectively decrease the mobilities and bioavailabilities of Pb, Cd, and As in the soil. Moreover, the application of FeHP will not have soil acidification and soil structure problem based on the soil pH measurements and soil morphology. FeHP can immobilize Pb, Cd, and As in the combinative contaminated soil from wastewater irrigation area simultaneously and effectively. Thus, it can be used as a potential soil amendment for the remediation of Pb, Cd, and As-combined contaminated soil.

Simultaneous immobilization of lead, cadmium, and arsenic in combined contaminated soil with iron hydroxyl phosphate

In the developing world, vegetables are commonly grown in suburban areas irrigated with untreated wastewater containing potentially harmful elements (PHEs). In Pakistan, there is no published work on the bioaccessibility aspect of PHEs and dietary minerals (DMs) in sewage-irrigated soil or the vegetables grown on such soils in Pakistan. Several industrial districts of Pakistan were selected for assessment of the risk associated with the ingestion of vegetables grown over sewage-irrigated soils. Both the total and bioaccessible fraction of PHEs (Cd, Co, Cr, Ni, and Pb) and DMs (Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn, Ca, Mg, and I) in soils and vegetable samples were measured. The concentrations of these PHEs and DMs in sewage-irrigated and control soils were below published upper threshold limits. However, compared to control soils, sewage irrigation over the years decreased soil pH (7.7 vs 8.1) and enhanced dissolved organic carbon (1.8 vs 0.8 %), which could enhance the phyto-availability of PHEs and DMs to crops. Of the PHEs and DMs, the highest transfer factor (soil to plant) was noted for Cd and Ca, respectively. Concentrations of PHEs in most of the sewage-irrigated vegetables were below the published upper threshold limits, except for Cd in the fruiting portion of eggplant and bell pepper (0.06–0.08 mg/kg Cd, dry weight) at three locations in Gujarat and Kasur districts. The bioaccessible fraction of PHEs can reduce the context of dietary intake measurements compared to total concentrations, but differences between both measurements were not significant for Cd. Since the soils of the sampled districts are not overly contaminated compared to control sites, vegetables grown over sewage-irrigated soils would provide an opportunity to harvest mineral-rich vegetables potentially providing consumers 62, 60, 12, 104, and 63 % higher dietary intake of Cu, Mn, Zn, Ca, and Mg, respectively. Based on Fe and vanadium correlations in vegetables, it is inferred that a significant proportion of total dietary Fe intake could be contributed by soil particles adhered to the consumable portion of vegetables. Faecal sterol ratios were used to identify and distinguish the source of faecal contamination in soils from Gujranwala, Gujarat, and Lahore districts, confirming the presence of human-derived sewage biomarkers at different stages of environmental alteration. A strong correlation of some metals with soil organic matter concentration was observed, but none with sewage biomarkers.

Health risk assessment of potentially harmful elements and dietary minerals from vegetables irrigated with untreated wastewater, Pakistan

In the present study, 12 heavy metals (Cr, Mn, Ni, Cd, Co, Cu, Pb, Zn, Fe, Se, As, and Mo) were assessed in a potential vegetable Luffa cylindrica. The vegetable was collected randomly from two different sites located at Jhang, Punjab Pakistan. The analyses of variance of data collected from soil showed non-significant effect on Se, Zn, As, Cr, Ni, Mo and Pb while significant effect on Fe, Co, Mn, Cu and Cd metals. Concentrations of all 12 heavy metals in the soil samples were low at sampling site-I as compared to those at site-II except Ni. These concentrations were found below the safe limits except that of Cd. At site-I, the concentrations recorded for different heavy metals were: As > Fe > Pb > Mn > Cd > Co > Cu > Mo > Zn > Ni > Se > Cr while at site-II were: As > Fe > Mn > Pb > Co > Cd > Cu > Mo > Zn > Ni > Se > Cr. Enrichment coefficient of Cr was higher which showed that root of luffa plant accumulated more Cr concentration from the contaminated soil. The order of enrichment co-efficient was recorded at site-I as: Cr > Zn > Mn > Cu > Fe > Ni > Mo > Pb > As > Se > Co > Cd, and at site-II Cr > Zn > Mn > Ni > Cu > Fe > Mo > Pb > Se > As > Co > Cd. The transfer co-efficient of Mn was higher which indicates that more contents of Mn were transferred from roots to upper edible part. The order of transfer coefficient at site-I was: Ni > Se > Mo > Cr > Zn > Fe > Mn > Cd > Pb > As > Cu > Co and at site-II was Mn > Zn > As > Fe > Pb > Se > Cd > Co > Mo > Cu > Ni > Cr. Correlation analysis showed that Mn, Se, Co, Cd, Ni, Mo and Pb had positive non-significant correlation, whereas a negative and non-significant correlation for Zn, As, Fe and Cr. The order of pollution load index at site-I was Cd > Mo > Se > Pb > Cu > Co > As > Fe > Mn > Ni > Zn > Cr and at site-II: Cd > Mo > Se > Pb > Cu > Co > As > Fe > Mn > Ni > Zn > Cr. Overall, at both sites, lowest concentration of Cr and highest of As were observed which need substantial awareness. Health risk index depends on soil characteristics, chemical composition, rate of consumption and type of a vegetable. In the present study, the order of health risk index due to these heavy metals at site-I was as As > Mo > Mn > Pb > Ni > Cd > Zn > Se > Fe > Co > Cr > Cu and at site-II as As > Mn > Mo > Pb > Cd > Zn > Ni > Se > Fe > Co > Cr > Cu.

Bioaccumulation of heavy metals and metalloids in luffa (Luffa cylindrica L.) irrigated with domestic wastewater in Jhang, Pakistan: a prospect for human nutrition

Trace minerals (Fe and Mn) contents of soil, forages, and blood plasma of dairy buffaloes from five different Rural Livestock Farms in Sargodha, Pakistan were evaluated. Samples of soil, forages, and blood were taken from respective farms and analyzed after wet digestion. The higher mean Fe and Mn content of soil at farm -104,Fe lower at farm-89 and Mn at farm-106 was observed in this investigation. The higher mean forage Fe and Mn concentration at farm-104 and Fe lower at farm-106 and Mn at farm-96 was found. The blood plasma contained high level of Fe at the farm-96 and the lower at farm-104,while higher Mn level at the farm-106 and the lower at the farm-96.Based on these findings, it is evident that soil had higher value of both Fe and Mn than the requirements of forage crops at all farm studied while forage Fe was higher than the requirements of livestock being reared at those farms while reverse was true for forage Mn, pointing to the warranted need of supplementation to the animals to fulfil their Mn requirements. The blood plasma Mn levels were higher and deficient level of Fe was observed at some farms. Therfore supplements with high bioavailability of Fe should be provided to the livestock being reared at these farms to enhance the reproduction potential of the ruminants.

Evaluation of dynamics of iron and manganese from pasture to buffaloes: a case study at rural livestock farms

Excessive use of herbicides in the crop field threatens the environment by destroying flora and fauna. Allelopathic substances might be proved as a substitute of chemical herbicides to suppress the target plants. In this study the Jaman (Syzygium cumini) leaves were extracted with H2O for its constitutional composition and then its allelopathic effects were investigated against pre- and post-germinated wheat and canary grass. By HPLC, total eight components were identified by comparing the chromatograms of the unknown with standard ones. The pre- and post-germinated bioassays were taken into consideration for wheat and canary grass separately. The results showed that over all 70% aqueous methanol extract of jaman leaves (2.5%-10%) increased the length of shoot and root linearly for both pre-germinated wheat bioassays (11.00-15.75 cm and 9.50-10.75) and post germinated wheat bioassays 14.50—17.00 cm and 10.35—12.75 cm, respectively) as compared with control ones. Similarly allelochemicals of jaman leaves depressed both the pre-germinated and post-germinated bioassays of canary grass as compared with control ones (6.75 - 1.75 cm and 4.25—0.90 cm for shoot and 4.00-0.45 cm and 1.85—0.30 cm for root, respectively). These results reveal that growth inhibition components may be present in the Jaman (Syzygium cumini) leaves and also certain components may be responsible for the allelopathic potential. Therefore, leaves of the titled plant may provide a possible material for the isolation and identification of allelopathic substances and may be helpful for the development of new natural herbicides

CONSTITUTIONAL COMPOSITION AND ALLELOPATHIC POTENTIAL OF JAMAN (Syzygium cumini) LEAVES AGAINST CANARY GRASS AND WHEAT

Scorpion venom contains various neurotoxic and haemato-pathological peptides with versatile binding affinity of ion channels and transmembrane receptors. Therefore, scorpion toxins have been vital to investigate for researchers. Odontobuthus odonturus is one of the common scorpions in sandy areas of Punjab, Pakistan. In the present study, we evaluated the toxic effect of O. odonturus on sodium (Na + ) and potassium (K + ) ions by introducing venom in Mus musculus. Animals were treated with different doses (i.e., 120, 170, 200 and 250µL) of scorpion venom orally and intraperitoneally. Results showed marked decline in potassium ions of treated groups in both treatment types. However, non-significant effect on sodium ions was recorded. The venom proved to be toxic because noticeable arrythmia, paralysis, congestion and frequent fecal discharge was noticed in treated groups and at 250 µL dose all the animals were found dead after 18th hour of intraperitoneal treatment. We concluded that venom of O. odonturus contains peptides which are selective against K+ channels which may exhibit fetal effects on nerve impulse transmission and homeostatic balance.

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Effect of Odontobuthus odonturus (Scorpiones: Buthidae) Venom on Potassium and Sodium Ions in Albino Mice

Background: Urinary tract infection (UTI) is one of the most common bacterial illnesses in adults and is one of the most common indications for antibiotics. This study is conducted to determine frequency of E-Coli and its sensitivity to nitrofurantoin in patients with urinary tract infection.
Materials and Methods: The study was conducted at a tertiary care hospital of District Peshawar, i.e. Khyber Teaching Hospital (KTH), after reviewed and approved by the Committee for Ethical Review of Research involving Human Subjects of KTH. Non-random consecutive sampling technique was used for the collection of data and data collection was completed in 06 months’ time i.e. from 20th February to 19th August 2018. The survey was conducted as a descriptive cross-sectional study using open Epi calculator, keeping confidence interval of 95%, sample size calculated is 148. Urine samples were collected in sterile containers and was sent to laboratory for routine examination, culture and sensitivity. A colony 105 or more was considered E Coli growth. Nitrofurantoin was used to check the sensitivity for organisms as per operational definition. All the tests and examinations were carried out under the supervision of experienced medical specialist and microbiologist.
RESULTS: In this study, 148 patients were studied. Average age was 41.86 years + 11.62SD. E coli was found in 91(61.5%) of patients out of total 148 patients. Among UTI patients 78(85.7%) were sensitive to Nitrofurantoin.
CONCLUSION: High prevalence of drug-resistant urinary tract pathogens, particularly to Nitrofurantoin suggests cautious use of antibiotic therapy for the treatment of UTI

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Z. I. Khan

Papers

Bioaccumulation of heavy metals and metalloids in luffa (Luffa cylindrica L.) irrigated with domestic wastewater in Jhang, Pakistan: a prospect for human nutrition

Evaluation of dynamics of iron and manganese from pasture to buffaloes: a case study at rural livestock farms

CONSTITUTIONAL COMPOSITION AND ALLELOPATHIC POTENTIAL OF JAMAN (Syzygium cumini) LEAVES AGAINST CANARY GRASS AND WHEAT

Effect of Odontobuthus odonturus (Scorpiones: Buthidae) Venom on Potassium and Sodium Ions in Albino Mice

Frequency of E coli and its sensitivity to nitrofurantion in patients with urinary tract infection