Showing papers in "Advances in Immunology in 1969"

Genetic control of specific immune responses.

Abstract: Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the genetic control of specific immune responses. The chapter reviews the recent important findings concerning “immune response genes” to antigenic determinants of different amino acids. The immune response to a specific antigen is a complex process that must involve genetic control at various levels. The fact that genetic factors are involved in the response to antigenic stimulus has long been known. The use of synthetic polypeptide antigens played a major role in elucidating the multiple genes that are described in the chapter. The intriguing question of at what level in the immune response these genes act remain to be determined. Genetic and structural analysis of normal immunoglobulins, myeloma proteins, and antibodies has produced a great deal of information about the genetic basis of antibody structure but has not yet given a clear picture of the genetic basis of antibody specificity. Structural analysis of myeloma proteins has led to a similar conclusion for the human and mouse light chain. The chapter summarizes the characteristic features common to the various genetic systems and analyzes the functions controlled by “immune response genes.”

Cytotoxic effects of lymphoid cells in vitro.

Abstract: Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the cytotoxic effects of lymphoid cells in vitro. The chapter discusses the complex problem of different types of cytotoxic effects of lymphoid cells. These outstanding workers in the field have managed to present a cohesive picture of the various effects on the target cells. The role of “nonspecific” factors is particularly well clarified. The interrelationships among contact lysis, release of pharmacologically active substances, and the terminal components of the complement system are given in the chapter for special consideration. In an in vitro model, it is shown that lymphoid cells from sensitized donors destroy tissue culture cells carrying the antigen to which the cell donor is sensitized. This type of cytolytic reactions is encountered in a great variety of immune situations, comprising all those mentioned in the chapter. The cell that initiates in vitro cytotoxic reaction is assumed to be the sensitized lymphocyte, equipped with its own recognition sites for antigen on the cells that are destroyed. Although this may be true in many situations, it now seems clear that “normal” lymphoid cells can become cytotoxic to other cells by a variety of pathways. The study of the various pathways by which lymphoid cells can become cytotoxic has been helpful for the understanding of effector role of these cells in cell-destructive reactions in general.

Cell selection by antigen in the immune response.

Abstract: Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the essential features of the antibody with respect to the interaction of antigen with preformed, cell-bound, antibody-like receptors. The effect of this interaction on individual cells is determined by the affinity of the antigen cell-bound antibody combination and results in the recruitment or selection of cells and their activation. The chapter also describes certain basic phenomena that are characteristic of the immune response and analyzes their mechanism at both the cellular and the molecular levels. These phenomena are an attempt to formulate a unified concept of the immune response as an antigen-driven proliferation and selection of specific cells that are committed to the synthesis of specific immunoglobulin molecules prior to the contact with antigen. This process, describable in thermodynamic terms, is the central biological event that can explain or predict such features of the antibody response as the progressive increase in average binding affinity of antibody produced, the effect of antigen dose on amount and affinity of antibody, the mechanism of action of adjuvants, the essential role of specific cell proliferation stimulated by antigen, the interference of humoral antibody with antigenic selection of cells, the phenomenon of “original antigenic sin,” and the induction of tolerance.

Slow Reacting Substance of Anaphylaxis

Abstract: Publisher Summary This chapter describes the biological implications of slow reacting substance for the entire subject of acute immunologic reactions and their pharmacologic manipulations and also provides an enticing preview to advances that may be expected in this field in the next few years. The term “slow reacting substance” is a descriptive one referring to substances of unidentified chemical composition that possess certain common characteristics. These compounds produce a slow, prolonged contraction of only certain isolated smooth muscle preparations. In general, slow reacting substances are not stored in tissues in appreciable quantity and, apparently, must be both formed and released from tissues or cells following some form of eliciting stimulus. A further feature of slow reacting substance is that it appears to be somewhat lipid soluble. Slow reacting substance of anaphylaxis possesses potential biological significance not only for antigen-induced bronchoconstriction but also for forms of immunological tissue injury relating to increased vascular permeability.

The lesions in cell membranes caused by complement.

Abstract: Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the lesions in cell membranes caused by complement. The most elegant electron microscope pictures of the holes in the cell membrane produced by complement have intrigued all immunologists. Many unpublished studies of the authors relating to these questions are included in this chapter. The appearance of the holes varies little, whichever type of membrane, antibody, or complement is used. When the surface of the membrane lies flat on the electron microscope grid, a dark central portion of the hole is observed that is surrounded by a clear ring. The surrounding ring may be single, double, or it may have tiny spikes radiating from it; sometimes the ring is incomplete. The dark central portion may be irregular in outline. It appears to be an indentation in the membrane surface, filled with negative strain. There is considerable uncertainty at present about the structural organization of the numerous components of which cell membranes are composed and about the way in which their selective permeability properties are maintained.

Phylogeny of immunoglobulins.

Abstract: Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the phylogeny of immunoglobulins. The chapter offers a definitive review of the immunoglobulins of various species. The chapter provides the phylogenetic tree based data that are used as a perspective for the understanding of the development and present structure of the complex immunoglobulin systems of man and other vertebrate species. The evolutionary relationships among a series of structurally similar proteins such as the immunoglobulins can be approached in two ways. The structure of the different proteins can be compared within a single, higher vertebrate species can be studied in the form of a horizontal study. Alternatively, the structure of homologous proteins that are present in animals' representative of the major taxonomic groupings can be studied as a vertical study. Taken together, information regarding the degree of relatedness as well as the order of evolution of the different proteins should be obtainable. Both these approaches are successfully being used at present in the study of immunoglobulin evolution.

Some relationships among hemostasis, fibrinolytic phenomena, immunity, and the inflammatory response.

Abstract: Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the interdependency of the blood clotting process, fibrinolytic phenomena, inflammation, and immunologic reactions. The chapter discusses some of the ways in which the body responds to injuries or to harmful agents. The chapter describes the vantage point of the coagulationist some ways in which hemostasis and its ally—fibrinolytic phenomena—influence inflammation and immune mechanisms. Hemostasis is a complex process that attracts the attention of immunologists. The interesting parallels and at times direct interrelationships of hemostasis and serologic events initiated by antigen–antibody reactions are now apparent. The chapter also provides the basis for a clear understanding of the many elements of hemostasis and a perspective that views the several defense mechanisms as a well-integrated continuum. The chapter provides some of the valuable information available in present scenario concerning the relationships among the blood-clotting process, fibrinolytic phenomena, the inflammatory response, and immune mechanisms.

Electron microscopy of the immunoglobulins.

Abstract: Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the electron microscopy of the immunoglobulins. The recent application of electron microscopy to the study of the structure of macromolecules followed the exploitation of negative contrast methods for the study of viruses. Resolving power of the microscope is not the limiting factor in the present and earlier work but the main limiting factor is the difficulty in obtaining sufficient contrast with specimens of molecular dimensions. The contribution of electron microscopy to the solution of the problem provides the main subject for this review. Most electron micrographs of free antibody molecules have shown a disappointing lack of characteristic structure. Electron microscopy, like almost all physical techniques for the study of protein structure, provides only a limited view of the protein molecule so that the electron micrographs can rarely be interpreted unequivocally without consideration of the results from other techniques. The results discussed in this review do lead to structures for both IgM and IgG reasonably consistent with most of the other physical and chemical evidence, although a few questions remain that cannot yet be resolved.

Immunological aspects of malaria infection.

Abstract: Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the immunological aspects of malaria infection. The chapter is particularly concerned with specific acquired immunity to malaria and includes a discussion only of innate and nonspecific resistance. The chapter discusses immunity in malaria, an old subject that contains considerable current interest. New methods for the study of the relevant antibodies and a new appreciation for a role for cell-mediated immunity are responsible for this development. The very diverse contributions to this subject present unusual difficulties for a reviewer. However, a clear and interesting summary of the subject has emerged and is of considerable value as a reference for all immunologists. In adults, malaria sometimes occurs as epidemics but more often it is insidious in its effect; it reduces the vigor of communities and by its continued presence causes a retardation of social and economic growth. The effect of malaria on a community is accentuated by the occurrence of other endemic diseases such as schistosomiasis and hookworm. Suggestions are made in recent years to revise the nomenclature of malaria parasites and to institute several new genera.

Genetic and antigenetic aspects of human histocompatibility systems.

Abstract: Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the genetic and antigenetic aspects of human histocompatibility systems. The chapter provides an overview of the genetic and antigenetic aspects of human histocompatibility systems. Histocompatibility antigens are the substances that are associated with the plasma membrane of tissue cells of some—but not all—members of a species. Tissue or cell suspensions carrying such antigens induce an immune response when introduced into another member of the same species. The immunity can be measured in several ways such as by the detection of antibodies in the serum of an individual rejecting a transplant, by a more rapid rejection of a second graft from the same donor, or by demonstration of increased immunological reactivity in lymphoid cells of the recipient. From immunological studies and from more limited chemical characterizations of antigens of different systems, it appears that a wide variety of substances can function as H antigens. In many respects, H antigens resemble blood group antigens with the distinction that blood group antigens are by definition found on the red cell and may also be present on other cells and tissues, whereas H antigens are found on tissues and may or may not be present on the red cell.

Antigens of virus-induced tumors.

Abstract: Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the antigens of virus-induced tumors in animals and man. The origin and characteristics of the various types of antigens in viral tumors and their participation in spontaneous or induced immunologic responses of the host are described in the chapter. The implications of such immunologic responses for prevention or therapy of virus-induced tumors are also considered in the chapter. Virus-induced tumors always contain a double potential from the standpoint of possible new antigens being present in the oncogenically transformed cells that are absent in their normal counterparts. The chapter also presents the transplantation type or surface antigen represented by in vitro and in vivo techniques. The chapter considers transplantation antigen as new antigen, presumably that is found on the cell surface and coded for by the viral genome present in the transformed cell that is responsible for homograft type of transplant rejection of virus-induced tumors in isologous systems. The demonstration of this type of virus-specified antigen in cells transformed by polyoma virus was one of the earliest evidences of virus-induced tumor antigens.