Showing papers in "American Journal of Psychology in 1976"
1,632 citations
TL;DR: In undergoing this life, many people always try to do and get the best as mentioned in this paper, but many people sometimes feel confused to get those things, and feeling the limited of experience and sources to be better is one of the lacks to own.
Abstract: In undergoing this life, many people always try to do and get the best. New knowledge, experience, lesson, and everything that can improve the life will be done. However, many people sometimes feel confused to get those things. Feeling the limited of experience and sources to be better is one of the lacks to own. However, there is a very simple thing that can be done. This is what your teacher always manoeuvres you to do this one. Yeah, reading is the answer. Reading a book as this contemporary developments in mathematical psychology and other references can enrich your life quality. How can it be?
692 citations
690 citations
473 citations
TL;DR: The authors found that a shift of operations will take little or no time if the stimulus can serve as a retrieval cue for the operation to be performed on it, but changes of set will have a large effect when the selection of the appropriate operation requires that one keep track of previously performed operations.
Abstract: In 1927, Jersild found that alternately subtracting 3 from a two-digit number and giving the common opposite to a word in a mixed list of numbers and words was faster than the average speed of subtracting 3s from a pure list of numbers and giving the opposites to a pure list of words. Experiment I replicated those findings: mixed lists were slightly, albeit nonsignificantly, faster than pure lists. Experiments II, III, and IV were designed to determine why changes of set did not slow performance on mixed lists: the results suggest that a shift of operations will take little or no time if the stimulus can serve as a retrieval cue for the operation to be performed on it. But changes of set will have a large effect when the selection of the appropriate operation requires that one keep track of previously performed operations.
398 citations
TL;DR: Judged time was an inverse linear function of response uncertainty under the prospective paradigm, whereas no significant function was obtained under the retrospective paradigm.
Abstract: The subjects, 120 college students, sorted cards for 42 sec with instructions to process 0, 1, or 2 bits of information per card (response uncertainty) and then were asked to make an absolute judgement of the interval's duration. Half of the subjects knew this judgement would be required before the interval (prospective paradigm); half did not (retrospective paradigm). Judged time was an inverse linear function of response uncertainty under the prospective paradigm, whereas no significant function was obtained under the retrospective paradigm.
377 citations
159 citations
TL;DR: It is concluded that the eyes are more important than the mouth in the representation in memory of a face.
Abstract: Subjects were presented 27 photographs of faces for inspection with or without transformation (the faces' eyes or mouths masked) and tested for recognition with or without the same transformation. Subjects were just as confident, just as quick to respond, but made more errors when the eyes were masked than when the mouths were. Masking the eyes caused significantly more difficulty on 13 faces than masking the mouths; the converse never did. Subjects performed better by all three measures when inspection and test were in the same mode (transformed or untransformed) than in different modes. It is concluded that the eyes are more important than the mouth in the representation in memory of a face.
141 citations
109 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, subjects were trained to predict a numerical criterion from each of two separate cues and then asked, without feedback, to predict it from a pair of independent cues or a single cue.
Abstract: Subjects were trained, with feedback, to predict a numerical criterion from each of two separate cues and then asked, without feedback, to predict it from a pair of independent cues or a single cue. Their intuitive predictions were qualitatively inconsistent with an additive model, since the effect of one cue varied inversely with the number of cues available, and with a constant-weight averaging model, since the effect of one cue varied inversely with the validity of the other cue. The data were consistent with a relative-weight averaging model, which assumes that subjective cue values are averaged using weights that depend on cue validities. Normative and descriptive theories of intuitive prediction are compared.
91 citations
TL;DR: The authors used data from a replication and extension of a 1972 experiment by Gardiner, Craik, and Birtwistle to support the arguments that Wickens' shift effect as a measure of encoding may underestimate the number of attributes primed in the course of successive Brown-Peterson trials.
Abstract: Data from a replication and extension of a 1972 experiment by Gardiner, Craik, and Birtwistle are used to support the arguments that Wickens' shift effect as a measure of encoding may underestimate the number of attributes primed in the course of successive Brown-Peterson trials; that the encoding of such primed attributes is obligatory rather than optional; and that the shift effect, in conformance with the principle of encoding specificity, is a joint phenomenon of both storage and retrieval.
TL;DR: In this article, different intervening activities represented various mechanisms that might produce incubation (e.g., set breaking, facilitation by analogy, review of the problem's elements) and none of them showed evidence of incubation, despite previously reported incubation with the same problem.
Abstract: Subjects worked on a problem, engaged in an intervening activity, and then resumed work on the problem. Different intervening activities represented various mechanisms that might produce incubation (e.g., set breaking, facilitation by analogy, review of the problem's elements). These various treatment groups were compared to a control group that worked on the problem continuously. None of them showed evidence of incubation, despite previously reported incubation with the same problem. Since these systematically negative findings are consistent with those of several recent studies, the status of incubation as an objectively demonstrated phenomenon is questioned and directions for further research are suggested.
TL;DR: A review of selected experiments indicates that not all examples of experimental amnesia are due to the failure of a memory to fixate and the empirical retrograde amnesia gradient does not necessarily support traditional consolidation theory.
Abstract: A review of selected experiments indicates that not all examples of experimental amnesia are due to the failure of a memory to fixate. Briefly, the argument is that the fixation of a memory occurs within a very short time and that its retrieval is aided if it is coded into a contextual memory system. An amnesic agent serves to block (inhibit) memories rather than disrupt them and has its effects on active memories, whatever their age. In sum, the empirical retrograde amnesia gradient does not necessarily support traditional consolidation theory.
TL;DR: In this article, a target pair of two CVCs on a memory drum preceded by bias pairs whose only resemblance to the target pair was that the first CVC of each started with the same consonant as the second CVC, was elicited by using an arrow to create confusion about the order in which barn door was to be said.
Abstract: Spoonerisms were elicited by presenting a target pair of two CVCs on a memory drum preceded by bias pairs whose only resemblance to the target pair was that the first CVC of each started with the same consonant as the second CVC of the target pair (Experiment I), as well as by using an arrow to create confusion about the order in which a target pair such as barn door was to be said (Experiment II). Both methods had the subjects articulate only the target pairs, and both methods produced the switch of phonemes that characterizes a complete spoonerism. The results are consistent with an explanation that posits conflicting demands from two prearticulatory sequencing systems, a phoneme sequencer and a word sequencer.
TL;DR: From two different series of dimensions were generated six ranges of nine rectangles each, and a novel measure was used to assess aesthetic preference for each rectangle, and subjects tended to prefer large to small rectangles in the former series and rectangle in the vicinity of the 'golden section' in the latter.
Abstract: From two different series of dimensions were generated six ranges of nine rectangles each. Each range was presented to a different group of 15 men and 15 women, and a novel measure was used to assess aesthetic preference for each rectangle. The ratios between the lengths of the sides of the rectangles were the same in both series, but in one series the size of the rectangles covaried with the ratio between length and width, as in Godkewitsch's 1974 study, and in the other series the rectangles were of equal area. The subjects tended to prefer large to small rectangles in the former series and rectangles in the vicinity of the 'golden section' in the latter.
TL;DR: In this article, male college students verbally judged time intervals with or without feedback on the accuracy of their judgments after each trial, and the correlations of absolute error between phases without feedback suggest that different processes may subserve the judgment of short and long intervals.
Abstract: Male college students verbally judged time intervals with or without feedback on the accuracy of their judgments after each trial. Some subjects judged only short intervals (5-10 sec) in both three-block phases, others only long intervals (40-80 sec), and others were switched from short to long intervals or vice versa between phases. Feedback decreased mean absolute error, increasingly so across blocks, and by the fifth block this training transferred for subjects whose range of intervals had changed between phases, more so for a change from long to short intervals than vice versa. These findings and the correlations of absolute error between phases without feedback suggest that different processes may subserve the judgment of short and long intervals.
TL;DR: Examination of within-class correlations between the consummatory and instrumental measures revealed practically no correlation between the two types.
Abstract: In two experiments, rats were reinforced by access to either 32% or 4% sucrose solutions. In both experiments, successive negative contrast was found in consummatory behavior (lick rate) when rats were shifted from a 32% to a 4% solution. However, this contrast was not reflected in any of the three measures of instrumental behavior (start speed, run speed, goal speed). Examination of within-class correlations between the consummatory and instrumental measures revealed practically no correlation between the two types. The results are interpreted as inconsistent with conditioning-model theories of instrumental behavior.
TL;DR: In this paper, 13 observers participated in a three-part study of the nature of coding for ambiguous colors, where each observer's point of subjective equality for colors straddling the boundary between blue and green was determined.
Abstract: Thirteen observers participated in a three-part study of the nature of coding. First, each observer's point of subjective equality for colors straddling the boundary between blue and green was determined. Then, before two successive and otherwise identical tests of the observer's recognition of the color at that point, the experimenter labeled the color 'greenish' and then 'bluish,' or vice versa. The data show that these name codes exercised a distinctive two-way intraobserver control over the visual recognition memory of ambiguous colors.
TL;DR: If the processing of verbal information is seen as a reverberating system (after Hebb) and rehearsal as the manifestation of the echoes, then an analogous precedence effect can be empirically demonstrated and helps explain previously uninterpretable data.
Abstract: When a brief sound is monitored in a sound-reverberating room, it is immediately followed by numerous echoes bounced off the walls and ceiling. Only the first sound to arrive at the ears appears to be used in its localization. This is generally referred to as the precedence effect. If the processing of verbal information is seen as a reverberating system (after Hebb) and rehearsal as the manifestation of the echoes, then an analogous precedence effect can be empirically demonstrated. Such an analogy not only helps explain previously uninterpretable data but also generates a very unique prediction that was confirmed by experimental data. The theoretical implications of the analogy are also discussed. The ability of human subjects to detect the temporal relations between input events plays a very important role in the processing of information. Such an ability to identify the temporal positions of a sequence of input events has been consistently reported in the experimental literature. Essentially, there are three lines of experimental evidence to suggest that memory involves some kind of temporal coding (or time tag). The first line of evidence is not an unfamiliar one. Studies of verbal learning have long been concerned with the problem of order in serial learning. In their influential paper on retroactive inhibition, Melton and Irwin (1940) suggested that identity or nearness of serial positions may function as a mediator of interlist intrusions. This suggestion was later confirmed by Irion's (1946) finding of retroactive inhibition in serial learning when original and interpolated lists were composed of identical sets of adjectives but in different serial orders. Young (1962) and Ebenholtz (1963), using a transfer paradigm, found that positive transfer is a function of the maintenance of identical serial positions on original and transfer lists. Such an order effect led Young (1968), after an extensive review of experimental results on serial learning, to the conclusion that the temporal positions of input events are important cues in multipletrial serial learning.
TL;DR: This article found that false alarms to semantic associates of prior words depended strongly on the lag between the word and its associate, and suggested several two-step models of forgetting during the lag.
Abstract: In a continuous-recognition paradigm, undergraduates were asked whether they had already heard in the series each of the 300 words. The rate of false alarms to semantic associates of prior words depended strongly on the lag between the word and its associate: at no lag, there was absolutely no increase over the general rate; at a greater lag, the false alarms to associates increased; at still greater lags, they returned toward the general rate. This nonmonotonic lag function disconfirms all one-step notions of generalization, including those based on implicit associative responses or on feature overlap, whether activated during study or test, and it suggests several two-step models of forgetting during the lag.
TL;DR: Photographs of two female models were viewed by 40 adult observers and the perception of being looked at depends on which eye of the model is observed.
Abstract: When a model turns her head and looks directly at the lens of a camera, the perception of being looked at depends on which eye of the model is observed. The model's farther eye appears to be looking at the observer, while her nearer eye appears to be looking away in a direction opposite to her head turn. Photographs of two female models were viewed by 40 adult observers.
TL;DR: This basic guideline is shown to provide significant insight into numerous diverse aspects of animal parental behavior, and its application to man may well contribute to a better understanding of human behavior as well.
Abstract: The theory of evolution by natural selection can be a powerful analytic and predictive tool when applied to the study of behavior. Given that natural selection will favor characteristics that maximize an animal's ultimate reproductive success, then insofar as behavior reflects at least some genotypic component, behavior will be selected to maximize that success - will be adaptive. This basic guideline is shown to provide significant insight into numerous diverse aspects of animal parental behavior, and its application to man may well contribute to a better understanding of human behavior as well.
TL;DR: This article showed that recall performance on the last few items of a 12-word list was impaired when a spoken "Recall" was used as the cue for recall, relative to performance with a nonverbal cue.
Abstract: Performance on the last few items of a 12-word list was impaired when a spoken "Recall" was used as the cue for recall, relative to performance with a nonverbal cue. This suffix effect occurred with four types of recall instructions after auditory presentation, including instructions for conventional serial and free recall. Even when subjects were instructed to recall the last few items first, there was slight impairment with the suffix. The present experiment raises a problem for the notion of a system of precategorical acoustic storage in that a smaller suffix effect was expected with instructions that delayed recall of the last few items, yet the magnitude of the effect was roughly equivalent with the different instructions. Three potential solutions to this problem are outlined.
TL;DR: In this paper, the effects of conditions of illumination on visual latenc y, as measured by several different monocular and binocular experimental procedures, were investigated, including the Pulfrich effect.
Abstract: The present study is part of a long-range research program on the effects of conditions of illumination on visual latenc y, as measured by several different monocular and binocular experimental procedures. It is an extension of an earlier stud y reported by Lit (1949), in which the magnitudes of the near and far displacements of the Pulfrich stereophenomenon were measured at various levels of illumination. The Pulfrich effect occurs when a target oscillating in the observer ’ s frontal plane is viewed under conditions of unequal binocular illumination (Pulfrich, 1922). The oscillating target will then appear to rotate out of its plane of oscillation: the target will appear to be displaced in front of its actual plane of oscillation (near displacement) for one direction of target stroke and behind the plane of oscillation (far displacement) for the return stroke. The apparent displacements in depth were accounted for in terms of a h ypothetical visual latenc y whose magnitude was inversely related to level of illumination (Pulfrich, 1922). Lit (1949) has presented a geometric analysis of the Pulfrich effect, including a detailed derivation of the equations that convert the near and far displace
TL;DR: Several experiments investigated the effect of word length on recognition thresholds for both familiar English words and unfamiliar pseudowords, the thresholds measured both with and without a stimulus mask.
Abstract: Several experiments investigated the effect of word length on recognition thresholds for both familiar English words and unfamiliar pseudowords, the thresholds measured both with and without a stimulus mask. For familiar English words, length had no effect either with or without a mask. For unfamiliar pseudowords, length had a dramatic effect both with and without a mask. Several early experiments on word recognition seem to show that word length influences recognition thresholds. McGinnies, Comer, and Lacey (1952), Postman and Adis-Castro (1957), and Newbigging and Hay (1962) all report that at some levels of word frequency, thresholds for English words increase as a function of their length. This finding has been accepted by Rosenzweig and Postman (1958) and to some extent by Neisser (1967). All this is rather surprising, since there is no reason to expect an effect of word length under McGinnies, Comer, and Lacey's paradigm if one accepts several basic notions of information-processing theories of visual perception. That is, it is usually held that a brief stimulus exposure produces an icon which can persevere up to 250 msec and that subjects can read letters out of the icon at the rate of one every 10 msec until the icon decays or is disrupted. Since no poststimulus mask was used in the above experiments, it is hard to see how any differential effect of word length could have been obtained. Thus, if true, the results of McGinnies, Comer, and Lacey would constitute a counterexample or at least a challenge to current theory. Doggett and Richards (1975) attempted to replicate the results of McGinnies et al. using a larger selection of stimulus words - McGinnies et al. had only a single word at each combination of word length and word frequency, and Postman and Adis-Castro used exactly the same list of words - but failed to obtain the earlier effect of word length. In a supplementary study with a different set of subjects, they obtained a
TL;DR: In this paper, the effects of vocalized tests (T) on paired-associate learning were compared with those of silent tests (t) and of blank (B, no test) trials by using six conditions, each repeating a pattern of six cycles including one study (reinforcement, R) trial.
Abstract: The effects of vocalized tests (T) on paired-associate learning were compared with those of silent tests (t) and of blank (B, no test) trials by using six conditions, each repeating a pattern of six cycles including one study (reinforcement, R) trial: RT'111TT, RTtttT, RTtttt, RttttT, Rttttt, and RBBBBB Vocalized tests facilitated short-term performance within a pattern, but not longer-term overall performance Silent tests were similar to blank trials in failing to prevent forgetting but similar to vocalized tests in potentiating the effectiveness of subsequent study trials Distinguishing the short-term effects of vocalization from its longer-term effects permits a reconciliation of its apparently inconsistent outcomes in the study, retention, and test phases of learning as well as rehearsal
TL;DR: This paper found that adults and young children judged mirror and non-mirror pairs of stimuli within each age category, half of the subjects were asked to treat non-Mirror pairs as'same' and mirror pairs as ''different'' and the other half asked to evaluate them in the opposite manner.
Abstract: Adults and young children judged mirror and nonmirror pairs of stimuli. Within each age category, half of the subjects were asked to treat nonmirror pairs as 'same' and mirror pairs as 'different' and the other half asked to treat them in the opposite manner. With children, that first group made fewer errors on nonmirror pairs and the second group made fewer on mirror pairs. With adults, the same pattern was found using response time as the dependent measure. The findings suggest a nonperceptual explanation of mirror-image confusions, one involving conceptual and linguistic considerations.
TL;DR: Convergence had a substantial effect on perceived size, while accommodation by itself had little or none, in relation to test target size.
Abstract: Subjects matched the size of a test target seen under various conditions of accommodation and convergence to the size of a reference target seen under constant conditions. Convergence, as expected, had a substantial effect on perceived size, while accommodation by itself had little or none.
TL;DR: The authors explored the effects of concreteness or abstractness of words on their tachistoscopic recognition using five lists of words and found that concretness was correlated with the perceived frequency of concrete and abstract English words.
Abstract: Two experiments using five lists of words were conducted to explore the effects of the concreteness or abstractness of words on their tachistoscopic recognition. The first experiment, using two lists patterned after those of Galbraith and Underwood, was inconclusive. The second experiment showed a consistent effect of concreteness. It is argued that this effect is a result of effective (personal) word frequency over the course of development, rather than semantic factors. Galbraith and Underwood (1973) investigated the perceived frequency of concrete and abstract English words. They used pairs of words whose members represented opposite ends of the dimension from concreteness to abstractness; the members of a pair were equated on measured frequency of occurrence, length, and number of syllables. In paired-comparison tasks, their subjects rated the abstract words as more frequent in usage than the concrete words of the same measured (objective) frequency in natural language. Since Howes (1954) had previously found that judged frequency of occurrence in a paired-comparison task was highly correlated with measured frequency of occurrence in Thorndike and Lorge's (1944) word count, Galbraith and Underwood showed that Howes's conclusion needed to be qualified to include the finding that concreteness alters perceived frequency of usage. The present studies explored the relevance of these results for theories of word recognition. In studies of word recognition, word frequency has been shown to influence recognition thresholds (Howes and Solomon, 1951). An obvious question is whether that relationship is altered by concreteness or abstractness in the same manner that judgments of frequency are. Thus, words matched for frequency, length, and number of syllables, but either concrete or abstract, were presented for recognition in the tachistoscope. The basic research questions were whether the recognition thresholds for concrete words would differ from those for abstract words, and if so, the direction of that difference.