Showing papers in "American Sociological Review in 1954"

What Is Wrong with Social Theory

Abstract: The aim of theory in empirical science is to develop analytical schemes of the empirical world with which the given science is concerned. This is done by conceiving the world abstractly, that is, in terms of classes of objects and of relations between such classes. Theoretical schemes are essentially proposals as to the nature of such classes and of their relations where this nature is problematic or unknown. Such proposals become guides to investigation to see whether they or their implications are true. Social theory is conspicuously defective in its guidance of research inquiry. It is rarely couched in such form as to facilitate or allow directed investigation to see whether it or its implications are true. Representative terms like mores, social institutions, attitudes, social class, value, cultural norm, personality, reference group, social structure, primary group, social process, social system, urbanization, accommodation, differential discrimination and social control do not discriminate cleanly their empirical instances.

An empirical investigation of self-attitudes.

Abstract: This chapter provides an initial demonstration of the advantages to empirical research from thus treating the self as attitudes. Although self has long been the central concept in the symbolic interaction approach to social psychology, little if anything has been done to employ it directly in empirical research. The self has been called an image, a conception, a concept, a feeling, an internalization, a self looking at oneself, and most commonly simply the self. There are two kinds of demonstration required to deal properly with the problem of the consistency of the test with its antecedent body of orientational theory. One is that of making explicit the chains of logic which went into the designing of the test, the test operations and the manipulations of the data obtained through its application. The other is that of showing that the test results correlate in some consistent patterns with the kinds of behavior which the orientation assets are related.

Status crystallization: A non-vertical dimension of social status

Abstract: IN recent years there have been numerous indications that, in the analysis of social stratification, sociology is rapidly outgrowing the classical conceptual schemes inherited from the past. Critically inclined students have come increasingly to recognize the inability of the older schemes to incorporate many of the findings of present day research, or to adapt themselves to newer theoretical concerns. This trend is evident even with respect to such a basic matter as the manner in which the vertical structure of groups is conceived. From Aristotle to Marx to Warner, most social philosophers and social scientists have described the vertical structure of human groups in terms of a single hierarchy in which each member occupies a single position. Different exponents of this traditional scheme have not always agreed regarding the nature or characteristics of this hierarchical structure. Nevertheless, all have shared the common conception of a unidimensional structure. Since Max Weber's day, however, this traditional approach has come to be criticized by a growing number of sociologists, who have argued that the uni-dimensional view is inadequate to describe the complexities of group structure. These critics have maintained that the structure of human groups normally involves the coexistence of a number of parallel vertical hierarchies which usually are imperfectly correlated with one another. If this newer approach is sound, the traditional conception of individual or family

Some findings relevant to the great man theory of leadership.

Abstract: breakdowns in communication are but a few of the symptoms of faulty group structure. Evidence of these should be identified in training and either corrected through training or appropriate changes should be made in crew composition. Participation in the activities of a group under survival conditions calls for skills in individual behavior for which all members are not adequately equipped, leading to tension, ineffectiveness, panic and withdrawal from participation. Crew members differ in their abilities to modify their roles with changing demands. Crew members, through training in the simulated survival situation, need to be trained to diagnose required roles, to perform them, and to modify their roles as required by group functioning.

The new science of politics : an introduction

Abstract: "Thirty-five years ago few could have predicted that "The New Science of Politics" would be a best-seller by political theory standards. Compressed within the Draconian economy of the six Walgreen lectures is a complete theory of man, society, and history, presented at the most profound and intellectual level. . . . Voegelin's [work] stands out in bold relief from much of what has passed under the name of political science in recent decades. . . . The New Science is aptly titled, for Voegelin makes clear at the outset that a 'return to the specific content' of premodern political theory is out of the question. . . . The subtitle of the book, An Introduction, clearly indicates that The New Science of Politics is an invitation to join the search for the recovery of our full humanity." From the new Foreword by Dante Germino "This book must be considered one of the most enlightening essays on the character of European politics that has appeared in half a century. . . . This is a book powerful and vivid enough to make agreement or disagreement with even its main thesis relatively unimportant." "Times Literary Supplement " "Voegelin . . . is one of the most distinguished interpreters to Americans of the non-liberal streams of European thought. . . . He brings a remarkable breadth of knowledge, and a historical imagination that ranges frequently into brilliant insights and generalizations." Francis G. Wilson, "American Political Science Review " "This book is beautifully constructed . . . his erudition constantly brings a startling illumination." Martin Wright, "International Affairs " "A ledestar to thinking men who seek a restoration of political science on the classic and Christian basis . . . a significant accomplishment in the retheorization of our age." Anthony Harrigan, "Christian Century ""

Role, Role Conflict, and Effectiveness: An Empirical Study

Abstract: LTHOUGIH the concepts of role and role conflict have received increasing attention in recent years, achieving the status of central constructs in the work of Parsons, Shils, and others,' they have remained theoretical terms largely untried by realistic experimental application. The few empirical studies that have been made, notably those by Stouffer and Toby,2 are neatly contrived, but fail to do more than barely approximate real life situations. Korber among others is critical of this approach, maintaining that the experimental stories invented for the research "depict unrealistically simplified and inadequate situations." 3 And Stouffer himself confesses the need "for studies which can be made in settings closer to actual life than paper and pencil tests." 4 The present investigation sought to avoid the shortcomings of contrived situations by working within a real life setting. Specifically, it was concerned with examining the relationships existing in the military situation between two highly organized roles,

Heroes, villains and fools, as agents of social control.

Abstract: SOCIAL types comprise a relatively unappreciated field of popular culture. Though certain ones have been intensively studied from special points of view and the role of stereotypes has been long recognized, there has been little effort to catalog, classify, or even adequately consider the vast number of highly significant types to be found in common speech, jokes, comics, popular fiction, folklore and the like. These conceptions, appearing wherever the popular mind finds expression, are truly collective in nature rather than the property of individual authors, "coins" of thought as Sumner phrased it, serving to express group judgments, facilitate consensus, and define roles. This article is concerned with three especially significant generic figures, the hero, villain and fool, and aims to state a theory of their normative nature, role as

The Relation Between Group Members' Self-Confidence and Their Reactions to Group Pressures to Uniformity

Abstract: THE tendency of social groups to produce uniformity of opinions, beliefs, attitudes and behavior among their members has been observed for a long time. A recent attempt to analyze this phenomenon has been made by Festinger and his associates.' Approaching the problem conceptually, a system of interrelated hypotheses has been formulated in such a manner that they yield to experimental tests. A considerable amount of experimental data has been obtained by controlled laboratory studies in support of this systematic analysis of group process. One of the principal concepts assumed to underlie the observed uniformity in social groups is that of "social reality." This concept refers to opinions or beliefs that cannot be checked against a physical, objective referent. The only verification for an individual's opinion would be through agreement with persons whom he accepts as valid reference points on such issues. Social groups form very strong reference points on issues to which they are relevant. If a particular opinion is in agreement with the opinion of a relevant social group, it appears to the person holding it as validated, and it possesses "reality"-that is "social reality"for him in much the same sense as an opinion which he checked against a physical referent. If any differences exist in a group concerning an issue that is relevant to the group, the members' need for obtaining reality for their opinions, according to this theory, gives rise to tensions which exert themselves in pressures to re-establish uniformity. Some of

The Family as a Three-Person Group

Abstract: (for those rating their parents' marriage "average to very unhappy").7 The mean score then rises to 5.24 for the women with divorced parents and this does not differ significantly from the mean scores of those who rate their parents' marriage ''very happy" or "happy." The relatively high mean score of women whose parents are divorced reflects the fact that a considerable proportion of the women in this group have scores near the upper limit of the scale. Thirty-four per cent score 7, 8, or 9. This contrasts sharply with the 2.7 per cent of the men having divorced parents who secure such high scores. The finding of a sex difference in the pattern of association between parental happiness and favorableness of attitude to marriage must be regarded as tentative, because of the rather small number of men and women with divorced parents in the present study. Assuming, however, that the finding is sustained by subsequent research what explanation can be advanced for it? The problem essentially is why, unlike the men subjects, a substantial proportion of the women with divorced parents confidently anticipate marriage as a source of happiness and satisfaction. One solution to the problem can be derived from the assumption that women to a greater extent than men look upon marriage as the essential framework of their adult life. Insofar as this is true it might be argued that, when led to take a dim view of marriage because of the decisive failure of their parents' matrimonial venture, men have greater tolerance than women for their pessimistic outlook. Generally speaking, the pessimism of the men relates to what they consider only a part of their future life; that of the women relates to what they consider their entire existence. The latter consequently are more highly motivated to reject the conception of marriage given to them by the experience of their parents. Some may even be convinced that having learned much from the marital failure of their parents they can look forward with all the greater certainty to marital happiness for themselves. 7 CR of the difference between the means (a) for the categories "average to very unhappy" and "happy," 4.31; (b) for the categories "average to very unhappy" and "very happy," 7.17; (c) for the categories "average to very unhappy" and "divorced," 2.64; (d) for the categories "very happy" and "happy," 1.79.

Leadership Among Prison Inmates

Abstract: share arrangements were best, for compensating sons interested in remaining on the farm, had adopted more innovations than had those who thought separate projects were best. In a partnership or share arrangement it is expected that the son would share more in the decisions than if the son had a separate project. These findings suggest that while the nature of decision-making within the family in general has little bearing upon acceptance of change in farm technology, perhaps the relationship between father and son with respect to farm matters does have a bearing upon acceptance.

The Social Isolation Hypothesis and Schizophrenia

Abstract: 60.5 per cent were employed in professional or white collar jobs or were college students, and only 8.8 per cent were employed in semi-skilled or unskilled jobs; 36.5 per cent of 74 who were working, received a salary of 251.00 dollars or more per month; 78.4 per cent of those who came from out of the state to have their baby in California had attended or completed college; 50.0 per cent of those who had attended or completed college were mated sexually with a man seven or more years their senior;

The cash posters: a study of a group of working girls

Abstract: There are certain ways, however, in which the approach may be adapted to take account of the time dimension. For one thing, the respondent may be asked directly about changes, about his recollection of the past and his predictions about the future. For another, the same respondents may be interviewed repeatedly at different points of time. This use of the panel technique for the study of interpersonal orientations seems to offer great promise of a better understanding of the dynamics of social systems. Finally, as we indicated at the outset, latent orientations are of maximum interest only as they are manifested in interaction. Both are necessary to a full understanding of the functioning of social systems. To be sure, observation alone throws light upon both, since orientations may be inferred from interactional data. Yet, interaction is the product of many elements (value-orientations, goal-orientations, expectations and sanctions, and so on) from which the empirical abstraction of interpersonal orientations as a single element may prove difficult. The questionnaire, by contrast, may be especially designed to isolate interpersonal orientations for separate investigation. Hence, future knowledge of the interplay between interaction and the underlying system of relationships may well be furthered by combining these two types of approach: direct observations and questionnaires.

An Experiment on Conformity to Group Norms Where Conformity is Detrimental to Group Achievement

Abstract: constituted, then the relationships are interdependent. Arguing from another point of view, we might assess the strength of the pattern by asking what elements in the original pattern seem more impervious to the induced change, for certainly resistance to externally induced change is strong evidence that relationships are structured. In the present experiment, the answer to this question is that emotional attachments change little at all, while behavior shifts radically. Thus, an apparent paradox is produced by the experimental procedures; we argue that there is a structure if, following treatment, behavior of the subject changes so as to fall in line with the new pattern; yet we say that the strongest elements in the initial pattern are emotional attachments because they resist change. One solution to the paradox lies in the independence between patterns of behavior and patterns of attachments. The emotional ties are stronger and more persistent than the behavioral patterns, but the significant point is that before the change their positive and negative aspects coincide with the behavioral patterns. After the change, they do not. Evidently behavior and attachments, coinciding in the original phase, have (through differing resistance to induced change) become separated, one from the other, then combined in the final phase where they do not coincide. The new pattern of behavior is superimposed upon the old pattern of attachments. These considerations lead to the conclusion that the coalition pattern is a partially interdependent structure, composed of emotional attachments between members, shared (or unshared) opinions and behavioral patterns which are laterally differentiated in their susceptibility to induced change. The lag in adjusting attachments is greater than the lag in opinions and these are greater than the lag in adjusting behavior. A general hypothesis is that this differential lag in adjustments exists in any group. Formally, this might be stated as follows: In a role structure of some stability, the structure of personal, emotional attachments (positive or negative) is stronger than the structure of common values and beliefs that are relevant to the purpose of the group, and these structures are stronger than the pattern of manifest interaction between members. Further, when the structure is by some means changed, readjustments are made with differential facility in three aspects of a role, such that there is a greater lag in adjusting personal emotional attachments, than in adjusting values and beliefs, and greater lag in adjusting values and beliefs than in adjusting manifest behavior toward others within the structure.

Deviation and Rejection: An Experimental Replication

Abstract: T HE study reported here is a replication of an earlier experiment conducted by Stanley Schachter, entitled "Deviation, Rejection and Communication." 1 The replication was designed to study the range of generality of the initial findings, consisting of a controlled analysis of the same conceptual relationships in a different empirical universe. Before presenting the findings of the replication it will be of value to review in brief the theoretical framework and the experimental design.2 The final section will deal with important discrepancies between the two experiments.

Role Conflicts of Military Chaplains

Abstract: In order that a corpus of propositionssociology, for example-may qualify as a science, each proposition should be judged by certain criteria of scientific quality. To make this process easy, it is advantageous to formalize the science, that is, to display explicitly the logic of its proofs in accordance with a set of conventional rules. The benefit of doing so is that valid proofs are more convincing, and invalid proofs are less deceptive, when their formal structure is unambiguously evident. Therefore formalization should prove a useful means for making sociology more genuinely scientific.