Showing papers in "Annals of The American Academy of Political and Social Science in 1990"
TL;DR: The authors argue that immigration originates not from simple wage differentials between poor and rich countries but from the spread of economic development to rapidly growing Third World populations and from a persistent demand for low-wage workers in developed nations.
Abstract: Contemporary immigration patterns represent a sharp break from the past, when international movements were dominated by flows out of Europe to a few key destination areas. Europe has now become a region of immigration, and, like other developed regions, it draws migrants from a variety of Third World countries. The large-scale movement of immigrants from developing to developed regions has both economic and social foundations. Economically, immigration originates not from simple wage differentials between poor and rich countries but from the spread of economic development to rapidly growing Third World populations and from a persistent demand for low-wage workers in developed nations. Immigration has many social foundations, but the formation of migrant networks is probably the most important. Networks build into the migration process a self-perpetuating momentum that leads to its growth over time, in spite of fluctuating wage differentials, recessions, and increasingly restrictive immigration policies in...
299 citations
TL;DR: Cooperative federalism, the reigning conception of American federalism from about 1954 to 1978, was a political response to the policy challenges of market failure, postwar affluence, racism, urban poverty, environmentalism, and individual rights as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: Cooperative federalism, the reigning conception of American federalism from about 1954 to 1978, was a political response to the policy challenges of market failure, postwar affluence, racism, urban poverty, environmentalism, and individual rights. Having social equity as its primary objective, cooperative federalism significantly transformed American society, but when the conditions underlying cooperation changed during the 1970s, the pressure to expand national power inherent in cooperative federalism gave rise to coercive federalism, in which the federal government reduced its reliance on fiscal tools to stimulate intergovernmental policy cooperation and increased its reliance on regulatory tools to ensure the supremacy of federal policy. The erosion of federal fiscal power and of constitutional and political limits on federal regulatory power in the 1970s and 1980s has produced a more coercive system of federal preemptions of state and local authority and unfunded mandates on state and local government...
182 citations
TL;DR: This article examined changes in contemporary African marriage and found that female education exacerbates inequities between de facto polygynous women who previously would have lived together, shared household resources, and acknowledged each other as cowives.
Abstract: Among populations that value high fertility, marital practices often play important roles in regulating fertility. This article interprets ethnographic and demographic data to examine changes in contemporary African marriage. It shows that female education exacerbates inequities between de facto polygynous women who previously would have lived together, shared household resources, and acknowledged each other as cowives. These new forms of polygyny, however, hold an important key to explaining why polygyny and high fertility still proliferate. Men sustain the costs of polygyny and of high fertility in large part by marginalizing low-status women, usually those with the least education, as outside wives and their children as outside children.
103 citations
TL;DR: This paper examined the evidence, showed why developing countries are currently in an unusual situation, and presented anthropoligical evidence on how cultural, social, and behavioral factors achieve their impact.
Abstract: Recent analyses of Third World data, both at the level of national or other large aggregates and at that of individuals studied in sample surveys, have revealed the surprising fact that social characteristics, such as the level of schooling or fertility control, or cultural characteristics, such as ethnic group, are usually more influential in determining mortality levels than is access to medical services, income, or nutritional levels. Evidence from the United States at the beginning of the century suggests that this was not the case earlier in the West. This article examines the evidence, shows why developing countries are currently in an unusual situation, and presents anthropoligical evidence on how cultural, social, and behavioral factors achieve their impact. An attempt is made to begin the construction of a more general theory of mortality transition.
98 citations
TL;DR: Intergenerational family relations in China, Japan, and South Korea are changing Multigenerational coresidence and dominance of patrilineal relations are declining In some ways, the diffusion of so-called Western values and practices that are in conflict with Confucian ideals parallels the earlier process of the ConfucIANization of Japan and Korea as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: Intergenerational family relations in China, Japan, and South Korea are changing Multigenerational coresidence and dominance of patrilineal relations are declining In some ways, the diffusion of so-called Western values and practices that are in conflict with Confucian ideals parallels the earlier process of the Confucianization of Japan and Korea The demographic changes that are influencing families are new, however, and East Asians of the future will have fewer but longer-lasting kinship relations At the same time, population aging and the expected declining role of the family in elder care are causing growing concern among policymakers
93 citations
TL;DR: This article examined English-only in the context of corpus and status language-planning types; restrictive and expansive goals; aims, implementation, and evaluation processes; and language-as-problem, languageas-right, and language as-resource orientations.
Abstract: Public debate about English-only invariably includes reference to bilingual education; furthermore, both are recognized to be language-policy issues. Yet there has been no systematic treatment of English-only placing it within a language-planning framework that also includes bilingual education. This article attempts to do so, examining English-only in the context of corpus and status language-planning types; restrictive and expansive goals; aims, implementation, and evaluation processes; and language-as-problem, language-as-right, and language-as-resource orientations. It argues that a complete consideration of this language-policy issue needs to include both bilingual-education legislation and the widespread concern for English usage; that English-only goals need to be contrasted with other language-planning goals; and that both the underlying orientations and the future implementation of English-only policies properly belong in the arena of debate.
92 citations
TL;DR: The authors conducted 32 interviews with nine companies of varying type and size to identify the foreign language needs of U.S.-based corporations and found that these needs depend in part on a company's type of product or service, its corporate culture, its geographical areas of involvement, and its size.
Abstract: This article summarizes the results of 32 interviews conducted in nine companies of varying type and size. The purpose was to help identify the foreign language needs of U.S.-based corporations. These needs seem to depend in part on a company's type of product or service, its corporate culture, its geographical areas of involvement, and its size. Different types of positions will require different types and levels of foreign language skills. In general, while cross-cultural understanding was frequently viewed as important for doing business in a global economy, foreign language skills rarely were considered an essential part of this. Language problems were largely viewed as mechanical and manageable problems that could be solved individually—primarily by hiring foreign nationals or interpreters or translators. Smaller companies trying to enter the global market often seemed more sensitive to the value of foreign languages than larger companies did. They do not have access to the same resources as their la...
80 citations
TL;DR: Although initially conceived as an enrichment program, the 1968 federal Bilingual Education Act had been recast into a compensatory education program by the time it was signed into law.
Abstract: Although initially conceived as an enrichment program, the 1968 federal Bilingual Education Act had been recast into a compensatory education program by the time it was signed into law. Federal civil rights policies respecting language-minority students reinforced the compensatory character of bilingual education in the 1970s by focusing on the so-called deficiencies of language-minority students. In 1980, the Carter administration proposed new civil rights regulations to protect language-minority students. The regulations ignited a political fire storm. The Reagan administration seized upon the political controversy to relax civil rights enforcement and to slash Bilingual Education Act spending. In 1984, Congress expanded the Bilingual Education Act to authorize developmental bilingual-education programs—integrated, two-way programs that help language-minority and English-language-background students achieve bilingualism in English and a second language. With additional federal support, developmental bil...
64 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors describe a Navajo community and school that went back to parental involvement and community control, that went to the native language and to the community and Reservation as a source of content and curriculum, and that went forward to a more appropriate, more effective education for their children.
Abstract: Roughly two-thirds of school-age Navajo children now attend public schools; roughly a quarter still attend federal schools. Since the mid-1950s, the federal government has put large amounts of money into effecting a shift on the Navajo Reservation from smaller one-community federal schools to larger multicommunity public schools on the Navajo Reservation. The federal schools that remain have become multicommunity boarding schools. The public schools tend to draw students from more Anglo-like, more English-speaking, homes, but these Navajo students and particularly Navajo-speaking students average some years behind state averages. This article is about a Navajo community and school that went back to parental involvement and community control, that went back to the native language and to the community and Reservation as a source of content and curriculum, and that went forward to a more appropriate, more effective education for their children.
63 citations
TL;DR: The Matlab subdistrict of Bangladesh is unique in the developing world in the extent of demographic data available over a long time period, during which a serious famine occurred and a family planning program that employed village women as home visitors was introduced within the context of maternal and child health services as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: The Matlab subdistrict of Bangladesh is unique in the developing world in the extent of demographic data available over a long time period, during which a serious famine occurred and a family planning program that employed village women as home visitors was introduced within the context of maternal and child health services. These data demonstrate that fertility in this population is well below the maximum biologically feasible, primarily due to the long and intense breast-feeding practiced, that seasonality of births is pronounced, and that fertility drops in response to drastic food shortage. Sex differences in mortality favor males, but during famine the disparity was reduced. Despite arguments that family planning programs are ineffective and use resources that could be applied in areas more relevant to development, the Matlab family planning program has led to both reduced fertility and reduced mortality and may be changing the status and roles of women.
51 citations
TL;DR: The fact that English is the internationally accepted language of research communication raises the issue of a language barrier in two senses: first, those whose native language is not English risk being unaware of major findings reported in foreign languages, especially the Japanese and Russian literature, unless they become proficient in at least one other language as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: The fact that English is the internationally accepted language of research communication raises the issue of a language barrier in two senses. First, those whose native language is not English risk being unaware of—and overlooked by—mainstream international research unless they learn to read, write, and publish in English. Second, native English-speaking researchers risk being ignorant of significant findings reported in foreign languages, especially the Japanese and Russian literature, unless they become proficient in at least one other language. The Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) data base is used to answer three basic questions bearing on this issue: (1) who writes in what languages; (2) who cites what languages; and (3) who cites what nations.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors evaluate four categories of externalities to fertility: reproductive dilution of collective wealth, cost spreading for public goods, public-sector intergenerational transfers, and other governmental expenditures.
Abstract: When individual couples make informed fertility decisions that reflect a concern for the future well-being of their own children, the aggregate demographic outcome should be both socially and individually optimal. This result depends on several assumptions, including the absence of externalities to childbearing—costs and benefits of children that fall on society at large without impinging on their parents directly or passing through markets. Four categories of externalities are here evaluated: reproductive dilution of collective wealth; cost spreading for public goods; public-sector intergenerational transfers—health, education, and pensions; and other governmental expenditures. Intergenerational transfers are found to create large positive externalities in industrial welfare states but small negative ones in Third World countries. Public goods lead to sizable positive externalities in both groups of countries. Other governmental expenditures lead to considerable negative externalities. Collective wealth ...
TL;DR: U.S. English advocates broadening federal funding for educational programs designed for limited-English-proficient children to include the full range of such programs rather than limiting funding to bilingual programs as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: U.S. English is a nonprofit organization that promotes English as the common language of the United States. This position has been attacked by bilingual advocates as racist and antiminority. The author examines U.S. English's position toward bilingual education as an educational technique, an educational theory, a social theory, and a political movement. U.S. English has no objection to the use of non-English-speaking students' native languages in classrooms as an educational technique. Research evidence, however, supports neither claims that bilingual education is superior to alternative methods nor the educational theory behind bilingual education. Therefore, U.S. English advocates broadening federal funding for educational programs designed for limited-English-proficient children to include the full range of such programs rather than limiting funding to bilingual programs. Bilingual education is rooted in a social theory of cultural pluralism and a belief in the institutional racism of American schools...
TL;DR: This article examined attitudes toward bilingual education among the Anglo majority, in terms of general support levels, the origins of support, and its future trajectory, and found that currently the majority feels moderately positive toward Bilingual education.
Abstract: Bilingual education has become politicized. It is surrounded by controversy, the outcome of which may play a greater role in deciding its future as an educational program than its educational successes. To better understand this political debate and its possible outcome, the present article examines attitudes toward bilingual education among the Anglo majority, in terms of general support levels, the origins of support, and its future trajectory. We find that currently the majority feels moderately positive toward bilingual education. Opposition is greatest among those who have generally negative attitudes toward minority groups and immigrants and who oppose special favors for them and among those who oppose increased government spending and spending on foreign-language instruction. Anglos' actual personal experience with bilingual education plays only a minor role. Opposition is greater among the well informed, suggesting that opposition may increase further as the issue attains greater national visibili...
TL;DR: In this article, three increasingly comprehensive interpretations of the cognitive function of markets, labeled computation, incentives, and discovery, are described and contrasted, depending on how the basic cognitive role of markets is interpreted, very different judgments are possible on the feasibility of market socialism.
Abstract: Decisive for the question of the feasibility of various versions of market socialism is the issue of the basic cognitive function markets are expected to provide. Three increasingly comprehensive interpretations of the cognitive function of markets, labeled computation, incentives, and discovery, are described and contrasted. Depending on how the basic cognitive role of markets is interpreted, very different judgments are possible on the feasibility of market socialism. Two types of market socialism are examined in terms of these approaches, and their shortcomings are attributed to their incomplete appreciation of the way knowledge is created, discovered, and conveyed in market processes.
TL;DR: Concerns about fertility and the family in the years ahead will focus less on the number of children than on whether their upbringing and education will be adequate to meet the needs of a society with a relatively small labor force and a large dependent population.
Abstract: This article discusses recent trends in fertility, marriage, and divorce in the period since 1965 in the United States. It describes briefly the sharp changes in patterns of births, marriage, informal unions, divorce, and remarriage. Very recent developments of note include the increasingly important place of cohabitation in the life course, the continuing postponement of marriage, and the rise in birth rates to women in their thirties. Explanations are examined that emphasize both the increased economic opportunities for women and the cultural shift toward a greater emphasis on individualism and self-fulfillment. In the concluding section, it is argued that concerns about fertility and the family in the years ahead will focus less on the number of children than on whether their upbringing and education will be adequate to meet the needs of a society with a relatively small labor force and a large dependent population.
TL;DR: In this article, a typology of population trends in Latin America by identifying similarities and differences in the levels, patterns, and changes of fertility and mortality is presented, and the typology is used to review the most important macro and micro determinants of the observed population trends.
Abstract: During the twentieth century the population of Latin America has undergone three momentous shifts. One of these affected mortality, and the other two involved marital and general fertility. Different countries, however, experienced these shifts at different times and with different intensities. As a consequence, the patterns of population growth are very diverse and difficult to classify. In this article an attempt is made to construct a typology of population trends in Latin America by identifying similarities and differences in the levels, patterns, and changes of fertility and mortality. The typology is used to review the most important macro and micro determinants of the observed population trends.
TL;DR: The condition of American federalism today, therefore, is ambiguous but promising as discussed by the authors, and the potential for greater noncentralization is being reinforced by changing socioeconomic conditions that place a greater emphasis on networks of relationships rather than on traditional hierarchies.
Abstract: Strong forces for centralization continue to operate in the American federal system; however, especially since the election of President Ronald Reagan in 1980, countervailing forces have worked to promote decentralization and even restore noncentralization in the federal system. Furthermore, the states have reasserted themselves as polities, becoming stronger and more vigorous than ever. The potential for greater noncentralization is being reinforced by changing socioeconomic conditions that place a greater emphasis on networks of relationships rather than on traditional hierarchies. The condition of American federalism today, therefore, is ambiguous but promising.
TL;DR: This article conducted a survey of 600 graduates of three of the best-known international business programs of this type and determined the importance of a foreign language competence in the careers of these specially trained business school graduates.
Abstract: American business is constantly being urged to employ more executives who can operate successfully abroad in one or another foreign language. Nonetheless, the employment prospects for Americans with foreign language competences remain relatively low. To both meet and stimulate that limited demand, several business schools have instituted programs that combine general business courses with foreign language training and international studies. This article reports on a survey of 600 graduates of three of the best-known international business programs of this type. The purpose of the survey was to determine the importance of a foreign language competence in the careers of these specially trained business school graduates.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors argue that the economic crisis in Yugoslavia is a predictable consequence of the system of labor participation in the management of business firms and that inherent in the structure of property rights of the labor-managed economy are some positive transaction costs and negative incentives that are specific to its institutional structure.
Abstract: The Yugoslav experiment with labor participation in the management of business firms captured worldwide attention. The critics of capitalism seemed confident that the labor-managed economy would provide a long-sought alternative to the accomplishments of capitalism. Instead, the labor-managed economy has produced a crisis of enormous proportion in Yugoslavia. The article argues that the economic crisis in Yugoslavia is a predictable consequence of the system of labor participation in the management of business firms. It demonstrates that inherent in the structure of property rights of the labor-managed economy are some positive transaction costs and negative incentives that are specific to its institutional structure. Those transaction costs and disincentives are responsible for inflation, unemployment, declining income, and other economic problems in Yugoslavia. The conclusion is that the labor-managed economy is not a viable institutional arrangement.
TL;DR: In the 1988 elections, three states (Colorado, Arizona, and Florida) passed measures making English the official language of those states as discussed by the authors, which were foreshadowed by the passage of Position 63 in California.
Abstract: In the November 1988 elections, three states—Colorado, Arizona, and Florida—passed measures making English the official language of those states. These victories were foreshadowed by the passage, in 1986, of Position 63 in California. Proposition 63 amended the state constitution to declare English the official language of California and charged the legislature and state officials with the preservation and enhancement of English as the common language of the state. The appearance of Proposition 63 on the political horizon brought language into public parlance, allowing us the opportunity to explore American language ideology. Preelection editorials and letters to the editor in California newspapers speculating on the need for and effects of Proposition 63 reveal the language attitudes of the writers. Certain themes that regularly appeared on both sides of the issue may be taken as elements of current American ideology.
TL;DR: For example, this article argued that the federal government was mandating a single approach, that there was no research evidence to support such a mandate, and that schools should be granted flexibility in designing programs to meet local needs.
Abstract: Bilingual-education research has helped to inform and to shape federal policy and funding as articulated in the Bilingual Education Act, first passed in 1968 as Title VII of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act. During the Act's most recent reauthorization, the U.S. Department of Education and others proposed changing the law to fund more all-English language programs. They argued that the federal government was mandating a single approach, that there was no research evidence to support such a mandate, and that schools should be granted flexibility in designing programs to meet local needs. In fashioning this argument, proponents of change carefully selected the research literature they alluded to. That research was judged against artificially high and overly narrow criteria. Finally, they overinterpreted the research to suit their agenda. Congress was under intense political pressure to fund more all-English programs, and it did so. But a panel of experts contradicted the argument that there was no...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors apply a property-rights approach to the question of why economic reforms fail under the Soviet-type system in spite of the obvious interest of the respective ruling groups in improving the performance of their ailing economies.
Abstract: This article sketches briefly an answer to the question of why economic reforms fail under the Soviet-type system in spite of the obvious interest of the respective ruling groups in improving the performance of their ailing economies. The author, applying a property-rights approach, points to the fact that all segments of the ruling stratum benefit from maintaining an undemocratic political system, but party apparatchiks and economic bureaucrats benefit also from the persistent interference in the patently inefficient economic system. Therefore they are most interested in maintaining the status quo in the economic system as well. Moreover, since the rulers turn to them for the design and implementation of reforms, their chances for preventing, distorting, and/or aborting reforms are all the greater.
TL;DR: This paper examined official Soviet statistics for the period 1959 to 1989 to illustrate some of the risks in describing Soviet demographic behavior and found that the changing ethnic composition of the population of the USSR as a whole reflects large differences in growth rates of ethnic groups.
Abstract: The most remarkable feature of the Soviet Union's demography is its ethnic diversity. More than 90 ethnic groups are indigenous to the territory of the Soviet Union. Ethnic Russians composed only 50.8 percent of the population according to preliminary 1989 census results. The article examines official Soviet statistics for the period 1959 to 1989 to illustrate some of the risks in describing Soviet demographic behavior. Is fertility in the Soviet Union high or low? Answer: both. Is the Soviet population growing rapidly or slowly? Answer: both. The changing ethnic composition of the population of the USSR as a whole reflects large differences in growth rates of ethnic groups; the changing composition of the USSR by region also reflects differences in migration by ethnic group. Differences in growth rates are reshaping the ethnic composition of the Soviet labor force. For the USSR as a whole between 1979 and 1989, three-fourths of the net increment to the working ages was contributed by the one-sixth of the...
TL;DR: In the former USSR, conditions for private underground activity have been highly propitious, given the barring, until recently, of nearly all lawful private business, chronic excess demand with fixed prices, high excise taxes, and both pervasive bureaucratic regulation and widespread corruption as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: In the USSR, conditions for private underground activity have been highly propitious, given the barring, until recently, of nearly all lawful private business, chronic excess demand with fixed prices, high excise taxes, and both pervasive bureaucratic regulation and widespread corruption. State property is vastly misappropriated and exploited, particularly by camouflaged cryptoprivate firms. The underground, generally employing money as the main medium of exchange and functioning through markets, touches very many and on average provides large supplements of goods and - together with bribes, theft, and fraud - income to the public. In the larger operations, illicit money flows up informal structures, often to very high officials. Underground money and aboveground political and administrative power tend to fuse and to spawn, or exploit, organized crime. Vested interests so created are a significant aspect of conservative opposition to perestroika. Under Gorbachev, the underground economy has increased mark...
TL;DR: The authors extrapolates into the next decade the probable changes in state-local relations and emphasizes three central themes: (1) fiscal federalism, (2) localism, and (3) state local cooperation.
Abstract: This article extrapolates into the next decade the probable changes in state-local relations and emphasizes three central themes: (1) fiscal federalism, (2) localism, and (3) state-local cooperation. The principal argument is that the nature, success, and prognosis of state-local relations for the foreseeable future depend largely on the fiscal health of state and local governments and the fiscal ties between the two sets of governments. Demands for constitutional and statutory autonomy for local governments, levels of satisfaction and discord between state and local governments, and the flexibility and constraints imposed upon the revenue-generating capacity of local governments reflect the larger and more dominant variable of fiscal well-being.
TL;DR: The dual-language program at Public School 84 as mentioned in this paper provides immersion settings in Spanish and English, on an alternate-day basis, for classes containing both Hispanic and non-Hispanic children of varying degrees of language dominance.
Abstract: The dual-language program at Public School 84 provides immersion settings in Spanish and English, on an alternate-day basis, for classes containing both Hispanic and non-Hispanic children of varying degrees of language dominance. Teachers carefully avoid concurrent mixing of languages as they develop curriculum. Language itself is not taught; rather, it is learned through use in informal classroom structures that encourage social interaction. Bilingualism and biliteracy are expected outcomes by grade six but are secondary to the goal of academic growth. The dual-language program is an enrichment program that grew out of the school's earlier bilingual program, which was started in 1970 and rooted in the principles of heterogeneity and inclusion of children's cultural backgrounds. It has been a collaborative effort of staff, parents, and administration, with technical support from Professor Ricardo Otheguy of City College, New York.
TL;DR: The states' role and condition are crucial in assessing intergovernmental relations as discussed by the authors, and states are the primary domestic governors who make major policy decisions, protect public health and safety, provide public education and highways, administer criminal justice, and regulate many aspects of business.
Abstract: The states' role and condition are crucial in assessing intergovernmental relations. Although often overshadowed by the federal government, states are the primary domestic governors. They make major policy decisions, protect public health and safety, provide public education and highways, administer criminal justice, and regulate many aspects of business. The states' current prominence reflects responsibilities resulting from cutbacks in federal grants, from the federal government's inability to pursue new programs because of the deficit, and from efforts made to upgrade almost every aspect of state governance. As a result, states are most energetic, assertive, and innovative. They will have to continue this activism to maintain their position as full partners in the federal system.
TL;DR: The proliferation of subnational government ties beyond America's borders is complicating intergovernmental relations and posing questions of constitutionality, jurisdiction, and propriety as discussed by the authors, and regularized institutional linkages should be established between the federal, state, and local governments, and there should be extensive inter-governmental cooperation in formulating U.S. economic and foreign policy strategi...
Abstract: U.S. state and local governments have become active participants in the global economy as they promote trade, investment, tourism, and technical and cultural exchanges. All 50 states sponsor international programs, and 41 states maintain over 110 offices in 24 countries. More than 1000 cities are also engaged in long-term international activities. Altogether, states and localities are spending hundreds of millions of dollars annually on international projects. The proliferation of subnational government ties beyond America's borders is complicating intergovernmental relations and posing questions of constitutionality, jurisdiction, and propriety. Nonetheless, such grass-roots efforts are vital if the United States is to maintain its economic competitiveness in a complex global arena. Regularized institutional linkages should be established between the federal, state, and local governments, and there should be extensive inter-governmental cooperation in formulating U.S. economic and foreign policy strategi...
TL;DR: This article reviewed and assessed the changing roles and relations between the federal, state, and local governments, focusing on intergovernmental aid, the flow of funds from the federal government to states and localities and from states to local governments.
Abstract: This article reviews and assesses the changing roles and relations between the federal, state, and local governments. Specifically, we focus on intergovernmental aid, the flow of funds from the federal government to states and localities and from states to local governments. The article highlights major trends in intergovernmental finances and relationships in the past thirty years and concludes with views on prospects for the future.