Showing papers in "Annals of The Association of American Geographers in 1969"
TL;DR: A case study relating highway development with the growth in wholesale activity for selected cities in the upper midwest of the United States indicates that, aside from being a good surrogate of transport efficiency, travel-time connectivity is also a good measure of the relative advantage of a given place in attracting to itself the centralization and specialization of human activity.
Abstract: Travel-time connectivity is a key factor in defining a process of the spatial reorganization of man's functional establishment. A case study relating highway development with the growth in wholesale activity for selected cities in the upper midwest of the United States indicates that, aside from being a good surrogate of transport efficiency, travel-time connectivity is also a good measure of the relative advantage of a given place in attracting to itself the centralization and specialization of human activity.
238 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the concept of revealed space preferences is proposed as the organizing concept for finding the rules for spatial choice which, when applied to any unique distribution of spatial opportunities, are capable of generating spatial behavior patterns similar to those observed.
Abstract: In the study of spatial behavior we are interested in finding the rules for spatial choice which, when applied to any unique distribution of spatial opportunities, are capable of generating spatial behavior patterns similar to those observed. Behavioral postulates in geographical theories should incorporate these rules rather than descriptive statistics of actual behavior in a spatial system, since the latter are incorporating knowledge of the same spatial system that the theory hopes to generate and, in so doing, to explain. The concept of revealed space preferences is proposed as the organizing concept for finding these rules. This concept is similar to that of revealed preference in the theory of consumer demand. If spatial choice is viewed as a comparison and evaluation of alternative spatial opprtunities against a personal preference function, then, from any consistent statement of preferences from the paired comparison of spatial opportunities, it ought to be possible to derive a unique ran...
210 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a theory of rural settlement location is proposed which will explain changes in settlement distribution over time, and empirical investigations over a ninety-year period (1870-1960) in six Iowa counties reveal that the expected increase in regularity does occur.
Abstract: A theory of rural settlement location is proposed which will explain changes in settlement distribution over time. A series of spatial processes similar to those found in plant ecology studies are postulated for rural settlement. There are three phases: Colonization, by which the occupied territory of a population expands; spread, through which settlement density increases with a tendency to short distance dispersal; and competition, the process which produces a regularity in settlement pattern when rural dwellers are found in sufficient numbers to compete for space. Empirical investigations over a ninety-year period (1870–1960) in six Iowa counties reveals that the expected increase in regularity does occur. These effects are measured by fitting the Poisson, negative binomial, and regular Poisson distributions to quadrat censuses of the settlement maps. Variance-mean ratios declined over time with changes in the farm economy, requiring fewer, but larger farms. The negative binomial fit the early...
131 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the development of a corridor-centered economic landscape can be described in five cumulative historical stages: initial occupance, commercial agriculture, railway transport, motor transport, and metropolitanism.
Abstract: As used in this article, the term corridor applies to a linear system of urban places together with the linking surface transport media. Corridors are very persistent historically, and they form one of the major types of urban systems in the New World. In general, the development of a corridor-centered economic landscape can be described in five cumulative historical stages: initial occupance, commercial agriculture, railway transport, motor transport, and metropolitanism. In each stage, the innovations diagnostic of changes in the economic system appear first in corridors, and diffuse outwards in a sequential pattern termed a culture gradient. Southern Ontario, as a real illustration of the principles of corridor theory exemplifies all five stages of development and manifests the culture gradient mentioned in the theory.
129 citations
TL;DR: The concept of mobile war as discussed by the authors is defined as the continual effort to create an insurgent state, complete with the elements of power, a raison d'etre, core areas, and administrative units that is the manifestation of the insurgent's territorial imperative.
Abstract: For contemporary national revolutions, the capture and control of territory has virtually become a “territorial imperative.'’Control of a geographic part of the state is a manifesto proclaiming: “We have arrived. We are ready to replace the existing government.'’Each stage of a guerrilla war has its basis in geographic as well as political circumstances. “Mobile war'’is required when the insurgent is unable to establish a base in the cities and must continually move to avoid capture by government troops. Once a base area is established, it is possible to enter the stage of “guerrilla war.'’If a system of guerrilla base areas evolves, then a parallel state (insurgent state) is formed. It is the continual effort to create an insurgent state, complete with the elements of power, a raison d'etre, core areas, and administrative units that is the manifestation of the insurgent's territorial imperative.
114 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present a detailed analysis of the distributional information available for the significant cacao zones of Guatemala and El Salvador in the early Spanish conquistadors.
Abstract: On the eve of the Spanish conquest aboriginal cacao cultivation extended from the two coasts of central Mexico to Costa Rica. Although the districts of greatest production were located within the Maya language areas of southern Mexico and Pacific Guatemala-El Salvador, a large and increasing market for cacao lay in the Nahua language areas of highland Mexico. To this area important amounts of cacao moved in trade from the southern zone of production. Distributions of Indian cacao cultivation have been plotted from published and unpublished primary sources. An unpublished tribute assessment list (Tasacion de Tributos 1548–51) provides the most detailed distributional information available for the significant cacao zones of Guatemala and El Salvador.
87 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, an attempt is made to examine the number, size, and function of the urban places in classical times, and it is shown that the poleis of classical Greece were very numerous, that most were also very small, and that, in terms of function, many were only large villages.
Abstract: An attempt is made to examine the number, size, and function of the urban places in classical times. On the basis of epigraphic and literary evidence it is shown that the poleis of classical Greece were very numerous, that most were also very small, and that, in terms of function, many were only large villages. Nevertheless, they tended to invest a large part of their income in their public buildings, so that these, rather than economic function, tended to become the criterion of a polis. As defined in these terms, the polis spread through the classical world, and was finally carried to its farthest geographical extent in ancient times as the Roman civitas as part of imperial policy. An aesthetically developed city was regarded by the Romans as an instrument of civilization. An approximate order of size of urban places is obtained from tax lists and the extent of the built-up area for 1) the Aegean region in the fifth century B.C., 2) Gaul under the Roman Empire, and 3) Britain. The ranking shows...
70 citations
TL;DR: A review of current research which is consistent with this theme reveals a greater emphasis now on the mathematics of spatial patterns and the properties of the geometries which are assumed as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: An interest in the relations between geography and geometry has been a continuing theme in geographic studies. A review of current research which is consistent with this theme reveals a greater emphasis now on the mathematics of spatial patterns and the properties of the geometries which are assumed. A challenge for geography is to combine this interest in geometries with the work on human behavior over space and to develop process theories from which the spatial patterns can be deduced.
36 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors compare the agricultural patterns in the immediate umland of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, with the crop theory in von Thunen's Isolated State.
Abstract: This paper compares the agricultural patterns in the immediate umland of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, with the crop theory in von Thunen's Isolated State. Although many of the assumptions upon which the Isolated State was built are not met in the study area, several striking empirical parallels can be seen. First, there is a ninety-five square mile eucalyptus forest surrounding the capital city, producing firewood and building material for the city. Even more significant is the shape of the forest which resembles the theoretical patterns suggested by Thunen that resulted from the introduction of an improved transportation surface into the Isolated State along which costs were drastically reduced. Eucalyptus forests are also found around smaller towns over much of Ethiopia in accordance with the idea that the small town in the Isolated State would produce its own land use zones. Vegetable production is found in close proximity to the city although vegetable and milk production do not occur together as s...
29 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the problem of site and building orientation in Meso-America has been investigated and the possibility that the Mayans had a method for determining magnetic north is suggested.
Abstract: Numerous Maya ceremonial centers afford the geographer a rich opportunity to investigate man-land relationships in Meso-America. This study concerns the problem of site and building orientation. Most elements of the physical environment appear to play a minor role in site layout, and astronomical and cultural factors account for only some orientations. None of these reasons explains why the Maya shifted building alignments from time to time and often simultaneously at widely separated locations. The alternation of structural positioning through time indicates a moving reference point, and the tantalizing possibility that the Maya had a method for determining magnetic north is suggested.
29 citations
TL;DR: The Mestizos from the northern cays of British Honduras provide leadership in the annual exploitation of an unusual concentration of grouper in the Cay Glory area as mentioned in this paper, and the timing of the occurrence allows surplus salt-cured fish to be sold to inland communities and exported at premium prices to satisfy Lenten demand.
Abstract: Fisheries are poorly developed throughout the western Caribbean. An exception is British Honduras where there is a substantial folk-fishery and the daily consumption of fresh fish is customary by the urban population. There are three ethnic groups of fishermen, with Mestizos from the northern cays providing leadership in the annual exploitation of an unusual concentration of grouper in the Cay Glory area. Timing of the occurrence allows surplus salt-cured fish to be sold to inland communities and exported at premium prices to satisfy Lenten demand. Numerous adaptations to tropical climatic conditions have evolved in preservation techniques but the industry as a whole may soon decline owing to overfishing if uncontrolled exploitation continues.
TL;DR: The American woodsman challenged this intrusion with a series of inept land alienation laws, largely based on a variety of geographic misconceptions conceived and formualted within his system of values of verities.
Abstract: In retrospect it appears that the extensive grasslands of the American West stood as an open invitation to the pioneers to establish a grazing or range economy. However, the woodsman settlers coming from the East never conceived, projected, or defined a suitable range economy, and so it was through the “side door” or “back door” of Texas that an appropriated system of grazing burst northward across the Plains following the Civil War. The system, commonly identified as ranching, was appropriated from Spanish America, and was an import from the grasslands of northern Spain. The American woodsman challenged this intrusion with a series of inept land alienation laws, largely based on a variety of geographic misconceptions conceived and formualted within his system of values of verities. The misconceptions expressed themselves mainly in the efforts of the rainmakers, the irrigators, and the exponents of dry farming. An examination of the efforts of these challengers reveals resultant confusion and chaos.
TL;DR: In this paper, the standard deviation of a set of mortality or morbidity rates for areal units can be used to establish class intervals for mapping, which will reduce bias and error in map interpretation.
Abstract: The standard deviation of a set of mortality or morbidity rates for areal units can be used to establish class intervals for mapping. Use of standard, rather than arbitrarily selected, mapping categories will reduce bias and error in map interpretation. The method of rate calculation employed will affect variation among rate values as well as the nature of the frequency distribution. Crude and age-adjusted rates are chosen to suit the purpose of the map, but once the choice has been made the technical characteristics of the method and its affect on variation and frequency of distribution should be considered.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors attempt to describe and to analyze broadly urbanization in Russia and the USSR during the present century, and demonstrate that this urbanization was, in general, related to three complexly interrelated factors (industrialization, transportation accessibility, and in-migration).
Abstract: In this study we attempt to describe and to analyze broadly urbanization in Russia and the USSR during the present century. To measure urbanization data were gathered from Russian, Soviet, and East European censuses according to a comparable definition and comparable territorial units. Despite very great population losses owing to war and famine in this century, urbanization increased at a remarkable rate, even greater than that of the United States. Between 1897 and 1959, the urbanization process was especially dynamic in four regions—Ural, Central, West Siberia, and Donetsk-Dnepr—and, in general, the east experienced a greater increase than the west. Since 1959, however, this latter trend has been reversed. Our analysis demonstrates that this urbanization was, in general, related to three complexly interrelated factors—industrialization, transportation accessibility, and in-migration.
TL;DR: In this article, the hydraulic geometry of the Manati Basin is analyzed and it is shown that the geometric and kinematic properties of the basin are continuously in equilibrium. But the results of the analysis are limited.
Abstract: This study analyzes the hydraulic geometry of the Manati Basin, located in north central Puerto Rico. Measurements of stream width, depth, velocity, and discharge were made at ten different stations along the Rio Manati. At each station and in the downstream direction, the adjustments of stream width, depth, and velocity to stream discharge for the Manati Basin are found to be adequately expressed by three power equations: w = aQb, d = cQf , and v = kQm. The rates of change, expressed by the values of the exponents, are found to be determined partially by the locations of sites relative to the river control, the cohesion of the channel materials, the roughness of the channels, and the nonuniform velocity distribution within the river. The similarity in the orderly adjustment of the Manati channels to discharge fluctuations strongly indicates that the geometric and kinematic properties of the Rio Manati are continuously in equilibrium.
TL;DR: The authors analyzed the changing residential patterns of the Dutch in Kalamazoo, Michigan and relates these changes to differences in acculturation, finding that the Dutch initially dispersed throughout the city, both the result and the partial cause of rapid acculture.
Abstract: The concept of acculturation, developed largely by anthropologists and sociologists, has not been sufficiently incorporated into geographical research on minority groups. One area in which the concept may be advantageously used is in the study of the origin and spatial evolution of ethnic neighborhoods in American cities. In pointing a way, this study analyses the changing residential patterns of the Dutch in Kalamazoo, Michigan, and relates these changes to differences in acculturation. The Dutch initially dispersed throughout the city, both the result and the partial cause of rapid acculturation; later, residential clustering developed in response to rapid Dutch immigration, and acculturation proceeded more slowly. In the final stage, the city's ethnic ghettos were almost entirely obscured through the acculturation of later-generation families whose residential dispersion comprehended the entire metropolitan area. The example of the Kalamazoo Dutch suggests that the residential patterning of an...
TL;DR: In the 180 years since the first Australian eucalyptus was described, the genus has achieved global distribution as mentioned in this paper and the tree has become an integral part of the material culture.
Abstract: In the 180 years since the first Australian eucalypt was described, the genus has achieved global distribution. Prominent among the early introductions was Eucalyptus globulus, the Blue Gum. This species reached the Peruvian Sierra in the latter half of the nineteenth century. It was first planted by Franciscan friars and upper class landowners, and then became a dooryard plant of the landowning peasantry. The tree has become an integral part of the material culture. It is the basic source of construction material and mine timbers, supplanting native woods in the former case and imported wood in the latter. The pattern of the eucalypt on the landscape is dynamically changing in response to increasing demand for wood by the mining companies and local builders of rustic housing.
TL;DR: A comparison of pork production with estimated consumption, however, reveals that the level of subsistence varied markedly within the South. as discussed by the authors found that the major areas whose production was far below their needs were Louisiana and coastal South Carolina, and other areas with lesser shortages were some western Mississippi counties adjacent to the river, the Gulf Coast counties of Alabama and Mississippi, the Black Belt of Alabama, and parts of the Georgia-Carolina Piedmont.
Abstract: Traditional interpretation of the Ante-Bellum southern economy has assumed a widespread and chronic shortage of food, especially pork. Comparison of pork production with estimated consumption, however, reveals that the level of subsistence varied markedly within the South. The major areas whose production was far below their needs were Louisiana and coastal South Carolina. Other areas with lesser shortages were some western Mississippi counties adjacent to the river, the Gulf Coast counties of Alabama and Mississippi, the Black Belt of Alabama, and parts of the Georgia-Carolina Piedmont. Although a number of counties were deficient, the greater part of the area produced pork sufficient for local needs. In fact, the Hill South sent huge surpluses to market in both the East and the South. The pork deficiencies were made up either by shipments of live animals overland from the Hill States or by western pork via the Mississippi waterway. South Carolina and Louisiana were the major markets for extra-r...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors analyzed the history of the American Revolution and found that the Indian trails did not predetermine the road alignments, that towns create roads rather than vice versa, that the true urban centers were the foci for six or more through routes, and that the sequence of development has been strongly at variance with the model suggested by Taaffe, Morrill and Gould.
Abstract: During the American Revolution, white settlers entered the Niagara Peninsula by way of the four entry points previously established by the Indians. The aboriginal trails served as the avenues of penetration, but with fuller settlement these trails were improved, abandoned, or extended according to the needs of the settlers. The river road became the most prevalent type of route because of the felt need for a juxtaposition of land and water transport. New roads were cut across the inherited network to tie remote areas to the administrative centers. With full settlement of the land the survey roads came to dominate. The analysis leads to the conclusions that the Indian trails did not predetermine the road alignments, that towns create roads rather than vice versa, that the true urban centers were the foci for six or more through routes, and that the sequence of development has been strongly at variance with the model suggested by Taaffe, Morrill, and Gould.
TL;DR: In this article, the identification of migration regions provides a means whereby local moves and migration can be differentiated and separately analyzed, and the majority of those who changed their chawad of residence during the quinquennium under review actually moved within distinctly interrelated groups of chawads constituting the individual migration regions.
Abstract: Despite the vigorous economic development and rapid population growth in recent years, the process of internal redistribution in Thailand in the period 1955–1960 affected less than four percent of the population. The pattern of internal movement is nevertheless highly complicated and the 1960 Census data contain more than a thousand discernible migration streams among the seventy-one chawads (provinces, also popularly transcribed as changwats). The identification of migration regions provides a means whereby local moves and migration can be differentiated and separately analyzed. Thus, the majority of those who changed their chawad of residence during the quinquennium under review actually moved within distinctly interrelated groups of chawads constituting the individual migration regions. Most chawads with a substantial population gain had no more than a local appeal and attracted relatively few from beyond the regional boundary. Although an overall relationship cannot be established between pop...
TL;DR: In this article, solar radiation records and firn layers in glaciers indicate increasing atmospheric dust content which might significantly alter climate, and this indicates decreasing albedos with increasing dustiness of glacial surfaces.
Abstract: Solar radiation records and firn layers in glaciers indicate increasing atmospheric dust content which might significantly alter climate. In some mountain ranges, glaciers have degraded even during periods of temperature decreases. This indicates decreasing albedos with increasing dustiness of glacial surfaces.
TL;DR: In this paper, one hundred fifty-four towns with at least one commerical service and twenty inhabitants each are dispersed irregularly through Gippsland, Australia, and a general relationship of their services S to population P is log S= 0.699 log P-0.367.
Abstract: One hundred fifty-four towns with at least one commerical service and twenty inhabitants each are dispersed irregularly through Gippsland, Australia. A general relationship of their services S to population P is log S= 0.699 log P– 0.367. The spatial pattern of residuals from this relationship is apparently made up of purely local elements. The fitting of low-order, partial trend-surfaces to the residuals establishes the presence of a weak but significant regional trend in their distribution. There are only minor differences between the map of residuals from regression and that of the deviations from the regional trend of those residuals. The explanation of the spatial character of the residuals, therefore, can remain in this case primarily in terms of local factors. The regional trend nevertheless needs explanation in terms of regionally operative factors that have not yet been established but which would not be suggested by more conventional methods of mapping residuals.
TL;DR: Halley was one of the leading figures in the Scientific Revolution in England who probably would have enjoyed a greater reputation had he not lived at the same time as Sir Isaac Newton, of whose work Halley was the greatest promoter as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: Edmond Halley was one of the leading figures in the Scientific Revolution in England who probably would have enjoyed a greater reputation had he not lived at the same time as Sir Isaac Newton, of whose work Halley was the greatest promoter. In turn, Halley's prediction of the return of the comet which he observed in 1682, at seventy-five year intervals, was based on the planetary physics developed by Newton. It is with this prediction, almost alone, that Halley's name is today popularly associated, but he was a scientist of great versatility. Halley made original contributions to several branches of learning including cartography. Although it is always dangerous to claim primacy, he is credited with the development of the earliest meteorological chart and the first printed isoline maps. Halley also produced a tidal chart and a map of the shadow of an eclipse, all of which show him to be a cartographic innovator of first rank. This paper attempts to bring together scattered material on Halley's ca...
TL;DR: The agricultural pattern of Mendoza, Argentina has two main elements, an early-developed region of vineyards around the city, and a region to west, south, and east with more crop diversity and modern technology as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: The agricultural pattern of Mendoza, Argentina, has two main elements, an early-developed region of vineyards around Mendoza city, and a region to west, south, and east with more crop diversity and modern technology. Four principal factors contribute to the difference between these two, 1) climate; 2) the chronology of agricultural settlement; 3) land tenure; and 4) the manner of water provision. The Mendoza city region is associated with higher temperatures and longer growing season than the peripheral region, with earlier development of irrigated land, with backward forms of land tenure, and with only limited use of well water to aid river supplies. Both land tenure and water provision are changing factors with considerable impact on the rate of agricultural development. The probable qualitative effect of two further changes in water supply, high dams, and new water control legislation, is comparable to that of well use. By contrast, canal lining and river diversion are primarily quantitative a...
TL;DR: Such great emphasis was attached to the “salubriousness” of California during the nineteenth century that attention seems to have been diverted from the fact that not all of the state was viewed as outstandingly healthful.
Abstract: Such great emphasis was attached to the “salubriousness” of California during the nineteenth century that attention seems to have been diverted from the fact that not all of the state was viewed as outstandingly healthful. Indeed, during the first fifty years or so of American occupance a substantial section of California, mainly the Central Valley, was regarded as inherently insalubrious. Perception of this insalubrity mainly involved malaria together with certain other diseases with which malaria was diagnostically confused. During the nineteenth century malaria was one of the most common diseases of North America and reached a peak of endemicity in California about 1880. The governing doctrine among medical practitioners was that malaria was caused by “bad air” or miasma. According to this doctrine, miasma was believed to be produced by decaying organic matter and was most abundant in marshes or in areas of newly disturbed soil. In California, the region of highest malarial endemicity was the ...
TL;DR: The authors found that permanent and seasonal immigrants are heavily concentrated around Paris and in the industrial regions of the North, Lorraine, and the Rhone Valley, whereas the location of seasonal workers may be closely correlated with the distribution of certain labor-intensive crops.
Abstract: Labor migrations from the Mediterranean basin to Northwest Europe have been a major feature of the cultural geography of the continent in the years since World War II. In France, these movements have concerned permanent immigrants, occupied initially in agriculture and mining and later in construction and heavy industry, and seasonal immigrants, employed almost exclusively in agriculture, as well as Algerians, who customarily move freely between the two countries. Among the permanent and seasonal immigrant workers, Italians were long the dominant nationality, but they have been largely replaced in recent years by Spanish and Portuguese groups. Regionally, the permanent and Algerian immigrants are heavily concentrated around Paris and in the industrial regions of the North, Lorraine, and the Rhone Valley, whereas the location of seasonal workers may be closely correlated with the distribution of certain labor-intensive crops. A complex set of economic, political, and cultural factors interact, bot...
TL;DR: The career of Harlan H. Barrows illustrates some of the methodological problems of the history of geographic thought as well as the facts of the establishment of historical geography in the American university world as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: The career of Harlan H. Barrows illustrates some of the methodological problems of the history of geographic thought as well as some of the facts of the establishment of historical geography in the American university world. Barrows “environmentalist’ position, as applied in the development of this field, allowed him to make significant shifts from the quest for a more precise formulation of the effects of environmental influences to an implicit recognition of the central role of human choices. Barrows’writings and particularly his teaching show the pace and direction of the shift clearly. In the light of the accessible published literature, supplemented by certain manuscript sources, persistent descriptions of his work in historical geography which place it under the rubric of “environmental determinism'’are shown to be mistaken. Barrows was an exciting lecturer whose main influence was exercised through his famous introductory course in the historical geography of the United States. What we can...
TL;DR: In the early 19th century, salt was used as a medium of exchange enabling merchants to pursue a diversified commerce centered in urban places; indeed, the salt trade, more than any other commercial activity, sustained the Ohio Valley's early urban structure as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: Salt, available at natural springs, seasonally attracted great herds of bison which through years of repetitious movement carved an extensive system of buffalo traces: avenues used by Anglo-Americans in settling portions of the Ohio Valley. Frontier settlement concentrated in areas of salt availability as the vital dietary element proved necessary to sustain livestock and to prepare meats, thus providing the frontier farmer with an export commodity. Salt was used as a medium of exchange enabling merchants to pursue a diversified commerce centered in urban places; indeed, the salt trade, more than any other commercial activity, sustained the Valley's early urban structure.
TL;DR: In this article, an inductive study of maps of the Arkansas Ozarks shows that the place name or toponym has value as a tool for the cultural geographer who is primarily concerned with the manifestations on the land of cultural origins, contacts, and migrations.
Abstract: An inductive study of maps of the Arkansas Ozarks shows that the place name or toponym has value as a tool for the cultural geographer who is primarily concerned with the manifestations on the land of cultural origins, contacts, and migrations. By analyzing a collection of 2,502 place names taken from maps of northern Arkansas dating from 1858 to 1962, it is evident that the process of naming the land was both a folk and an official one. The geographical expression of these cultural processes provides an insight into the role of the habitat in primary settlement, and to the continuum of change in a little-known region of the United States.