Showing papers in "Child Welfare in 2006"

Hazards of stigma: the sexual and physical abuse of gay, lesbian, and bisexual adolescents in the United States and Canada.

Abstract: Some studies suggest lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) teens are at higher risk than peers for violence at home, in school, and in the community. That can bring them into the child welfare system or services for runaway and homeless teens. This study compared self-reported experiences of sexual and physical abuse based on sexual orientation and gender in seven populationbased surveys of youth. The authors used d- and ageadjusted odds of abuse to compare bisexual to heterosexual, mostly heterosexual, and gay and lesbian students. They also provide case studies to illustrate the experiences of such youth.

Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Homeless Youth: An Eight-City Public Health Perspective

Abstract: This article reports on results of a one-day public health survey conducted in six states by homeless youth providers to measure and compare risk factors between lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) homeless youth and non-LGB homeless youth. This article intends to inform the child welfare field on existing gaps in services and areas where more training and technical support is necessary in providing services to homeless LGB youth. The findings point to substantial differences within the homeless youth sample and demonstrate that in addition to the public health risks young people face merely by being homeless, the risks are exacerbated for those who self-identify as lesbian, gay, or bisexual. The article informs child welfare providers and policymakers about the substantial vulnerability of LGB youth beyond that of non-LGB homeless youth and the need to fund programming, training, technical assistance and further research to specifically respond to the complex needs of this population. An estimated 1.6 million youth are homeless each year in the United States (Robertson & Toro, 1988). Whitbeck, Chen, Hoyt, Tyler and Johnson (2004) estimate the average percentage of homeless youth who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and questioning (LGBTQ) is approximately 20%, with a slightly smaller representation outside of large urban areas. In many cases, these youth are presenting agencies and service systems with very different needs and challenges that deserve attention in policy and program development. Overall, the research indicates multiple public health risk factors associated with youth homelessness. Based on data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (Whitbeck & Hoyt, 1999), repeat runaways were 7 to 12 times more likely to have a history of substance abuse than nonrunaways or those who had run away only once. Kipke, Montgomery, Simon, and Iverson (1997) classify more than 70% of the Los Angeles homeless youth in their sample as having alcohol and/or drug abuse disorders, based on DSM III criteria. Rew, Tayler-Seehafer, and Fitzgerald (2001) report 56.3% of their sample had injected drugs and 46.9% had used inhalants. A study conducted in San Francisco found that one-third of its sample of street youth reported injecting drugs (Clements, Gleghorn, Garcia, Katz, & Marx, 1997). Roy, Haley, Leclerc, Boivin, Cedras, and Vincelette (2001) report that 45.8% of their street youth sample endorsed injecting drugs. In addition to exhibiting high rates of substance abuse, homeless youth reported experiencing high levels of physical and sexual abuse, pervasive mental illness, and high rates of engaging in risky sexual behavior (Bucy & Nichols, 1991; Cauce, Paradise, Ginzler, Embry, Morgan, Lohr, & Theofelis, 2000; Kipke, Montgomery, et al., 1997; Shane, 1991). A national study of 364 homeless adolescents found that 60% of girls and 23% of boys reported sexual abuse before leaving home, 51% reported being physically abused prior to leaving home, and 62% were afraid of being hit (Cauce et al., 2000). Rates of survival sex (the exchange of sex for drugs, money, food, clothing, or shelter) vary dramatically in the literature. Greene, Ennett, and Ringwalt (1999) report 28% of their street youth samples participated in survival sex, whereas Kipke, Unger, O'Connor, Palmer, and LaFrance (1997) estimate this behavior occurs between 16% and 46% of street youth. Yates, MacKenzie, Pennbridge, and Cohen (1988) estimate that approximately 26% of the homeless and runaway youth in their sample were involved in survival sex. A survey of 206 runaways, ages 11-18 and living in New York City (Rotheram-Borus, Meyer-Bahlburg, Koopman, Rosario, Exner, Henderson, Matthieu, & Green, 1992), revealed that among the 80% of sexually active youth, 22% of males and 7% of females engaged in survival sex. Rew (2000) concludes homeless youth were at high risk of contracting sexually transmitted infections because high-risk sexual behaviors were reported, including multiple sex partners and survival sex. …

The potential for successful family foster care: conceptualizing competency domains for foster parents

Abstract: The potential to foster successfully starts with developing and supporting competency in 12 domains: providing a safe and secure environment, providing a nurturing environment, promoting educational attainment and success, meeting physical and mental healthcare needs, promoting social and emotional development, supporting diversity and children's cultural needs, supporting permanency planning, managing ambiguity and loss for the foster child and family, growing as a foster parent, managing the demands of fostering on personal and familial well-being, supporting relationships between children and their families, and working as a team member. This article describes each domain and reviews relevant research to help guide the assessment of practicing and future foster parents.

Health and mental health services for children in foster care: the central role of foster parents.

Abstract: It is well documented that children enter foster care with special health and mental health needs and, while in care, those conditions are often exacerbated However, less attention has been given to foster parents who have the most contact with these children Results are presented from a national study on the developmental, health and mental health care needs of children in foster care that included foster parents' perspectives and observations Their role in improving child well being is explained and recommendations for policy, practice and advocacy also are included

Transgender children and youth: a child welfare practice perspective.

Abstract: Using an ecological framework, the existing literature and research, and the authors' combined 60 years of clinical practice with children, youth, and families, this article examines gender variant childhood development from a holistic viewpoint where children, youth, and environments are understood as a unit in the context of their relationship to one another. The focus is limited to a discussion about the recognition of gender identity; an examination of the adaptation process through which gender variant children and youth go through to deal with the stress of an environment where there is not a "goodness of fit"; and a discussion of the overall developmental tasks of a transgender childhood and adolescence. Recommendations for social work practice with gender variant young people are presented in the conclusion of the paper.

Parent-child interaction therapy: application of an empirically supported treatment to maltreated children in foster care.

Abstract: One of the more serious problems faced by child welfare services involves the management of children with serious behavioral and mental health problems. Aggressive and defiant foster children are more likely to have multiple foster care placements, require extraordinary social services resources, and have poor short- and long-term mental health outcomes. Interventions that work with challenging foster children and enhance foster parents' skills in managing problem behaviors are necessary. This article presents the successful results of a single case study examining the application of Parent-Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) with an aggressive young boy and his foster-adoptive parent. PCIT is a dyadic intervention that has been identified as an empirically supported treatment for abused children and for children with different types of behavioral disruption. The application of PCIT to assist foster parents is a promising direction for child welfare services.

Envisaging the adoption process to strengthen gay- and lesbian-headed families: recommendations for adoption professionals.

Abstract: Although a growing number of child placement agencies are serving lesbians and gay men, a dearth of literature exists for adoption agency policies and practices related to working with this population. This article explores the unique characteristics and strengths of prospective gay and lesbian adoptive parents throughout each of the three phases of the adoption process-preplacement, placement, and postplacement-as well as provides suggestions for adoption professionals working with gays and lesbians. Data from a recent qualitative study of single, gay adoptive fathers are used to illustrate examples and expose areas of potential strengths of adoptive parents not generally explored in the preplacement or preparatory stage. Special attention also is given to the continuing needs of adoptive families headed by gays and lesbians after adoptive placement. Specifically explored are the needs for developing linkages with similar families, as well as providing resources designed to promote successful outcomes of adopted children raised by gays and lesbians.

Foster youth emancipating from care: caseworkers' reports on needs and services.

Abstract: This article presents findings from a survey mailed to caseworkers, who answered questions about special needs, independent living skills, educational attainment, and services for 416 randomly selected foster youth in Illinois. A third of the adolescents had a mental health disorder, developmental disability, or other special need that their caseworkers believed would interfere with their ability to live independently. Additionally, urban youth were underserved relative to other youth. Youth with more behavior problems and educational and job skill deficits were less likely than other youth to continue to receive child welfare services past age 18, suggesting that services must be provided throughout adolescence to meet the needs of the most vulnerable clients. Nationally, about 20,2000 youth emancipate from foster care each year (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services [DHHS], 1999). Although few studies have followed these adolescents into adulthood, existing research suggests that former foster youth are at high risk for negative outcomes, including homelessness, incarceration, drug use, victimization, and reliance on public aid (Benedict, Zuravin, & Stallings, 1996; Cook, 1994; Courtney, Piliavin, Grogan-Kaylor, & Nesmith, 2001; Jonson-Reid & Barth, 2000; Mangine, Royse, Wiehe, & Nietzel, 1990; Stoner, 1999). Concern about the outcomes for youth who age out of foster care led to implementation of the Independent Living Initiative in 1987 (P.L. 99-272). This amendment to Title IV-E allows states to provide transitional living services to youth who are 16 and older. The effects of this legislation, however, are not clear; studies completed since this act was passed suggest that about half of foster youth continue to be inadequately prepared for independent living (Cook; English, Kouidou-Giles, & Plocke, 1994; Stoner). Readiness for independent living is affected by both an adolescent's tangible life skills, such as how to obtain and keep a job, and intangible life skills, such as problem-solving, self-esteem, and anger and grief management (Nollan et al., 2000; Ryan, McFadden, Rice, & Warren, 1988). Additionally, these skills cannot be assessed independently from characteristics of the adolescent that might impede attaining or using them. Many foster care youth have significant educational, behavioral, and mental health needs that may cause difficulties with successfully attaining independence. For example, a study of 431 youth completed in Washington State finds that 54% had a disabling special need (English, Kouidou-Giles, & Plocke, 1994). Nearly half (48%) had noncompliant behavior, and 26% had dropped out of school. Results from Courtney and colleagues' (2001) longitudinal study in Wisconsin are similar. In their sample of 141 foster youth, more than 70% of respondents reported one or more delinquent acts, and about 40% admitted to more serious offenses such as breaking and entering (14%), attacking someone outside their home (18%), and being drunk in public (24%). After emancipation from foster care, only 61% were employed. Another study conducted in the late 1980s finds that among a cohort of 1,650 adolescents, two-thirds had not graduated from high school on time, 17% had experienced pregnancy, 38% were emotionally disturbed, 16% had delinquency records, and 29% had substance abuse problems (Cook, 1994). The high prevalence of these types of serious special needs supports the importance of providing adequate support to older youth who are transitioning to independent living. Recent amendments to Title IV-E in the Foster Care Independence Act of 1999 attempt to address the special needs of older adolescents in foster care by increasing funding for independent living programs and stating that independent living services should be provided to youth in need of such programs. Research suggests that these types of services may have the potential to improve self-sufficiency at discharge from care (Cook, 1994; Scannapieco, Shagrin, & Scannapieco, 1995). …

Predictors of running away from family foster care.

Abstract: Running away is a frequent but little studied phenomenon among adolescents in foster care. Repeated running from care often leads to premature discharge and homelessness for youth. This article uses cumulative risk theory in the context of normative adolescent development to investigate predicators of running away from foster care. Results indicate risks stemming from individual, foster home, and child welfare system sources, which offer some insight for prevention and intervention.

Putting the pieces together for queer youth: a model of integrated assessment of need and program planning.

Abstract: Needs assessments require staff with the necessary expertise to design the study, collect the data, analyze the data, and present results. They require money, time, and persistence, because the people one wishes to assess often are difficult to access. This article argues for the centrality of a well-done needs assessment when developing services for LGBTQ youth. Needs assessment methodology and adjunctive uses of the needs assessment data also are discussed. The authors present a needs assessment of LGBTQ youth living in out-of-home care in San Diego, California, as an example of the purpose, practicality, and power of a comprehensive needs assessment. The needs assessment identified several issues, as well as additional data supporting the project's necessity. The data also identified the most significant obstacles youth face in accessing housing and supportive services. Through the data collection process, non-LGBT housing providers better understood their need for additional training, and housing and city leadership communities obtained and spread knowledge of the project.

Adolescents' feelings about openness in adoption: Implications for adoption agencies

Abstract: Adoption research commonly uses parents' reports of satisfaction when examining openness in adoption arrangements. This qualitative study aimed to fill a gap in the adoption research by using adolescents' voices to gain a better understanding of their adoption experiences. Adopted adolescents (n = 152) were interviewed concerning their satisfaction with the openness in their adoption arrangements with their birthmothers. Results and implications from this study may affect how adoption agencies work with adopted adolescents and their families, and may influence a broader understanding of the recent trend toward open adoption arrangements.

Closer to home: parent mentors in child welfare.

Abstract: This article addresses the emerging use of parent mentors--parents who have successfully negotiated the child welfare system and provide support and advocacy to others. The theoretical justification, roles, and expected outcomes and benefits of parent mentors are explored. The organizational factors thought to be required for such programs are also described, drawing on the available literature and the practice experience of a recently implemented Parent Partners program in a county child welfare agency.

Child welfare workers: who they are and how they view the child welfare system.

Abstract: This article examines the characteristics of child welfare caseworkers, their views of the child welfare system, their clients, their agency of employment, and child welfare policies, and whether these views vary according to caseworkers' characteristics. Quantitative and qualitative methods were used to analyze in-depth interviews conducted with caseworkers in New York and Chicago. The major themes that emerged from the analysis indicate caseworkers believed that the child welfare system does not meet the needs of the children in care, lacks the resources to appropriately serve clients, and often establishes goals that cannot be attained by the biological parents. Caseworkers held negative views of the biological parents and, although most described their organization as well equipped, almost as many reported that their organization lacked technical, administrative, and personnel resources. Caseworkers' views of child welfare policies emphasized the need for reforming the system and reevaluating funding priorities. In the past four decades, child welfare public policies have reflected increased efforts to ensure children's safety, stability, and well-being. The 1974 Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act mandated the reporting of child maltreatment, resulting in increasing reports of child abuse and neglect, as well as a growing number of children entering custody of the child welfare system. Child maltreatment increasingly became the focus (Hagedorn, 1995; McGowan & Walsh, 1985; Petr, 1998). As foster care caseloads grew, critics charged that the system lacked case planning and adequate practices to reestablish family functioning or to ensure that children who could not safely return to their parents became members of new permanent families through adoption (Gambrill & Stein, 1978; Kadushin, 1980; Laird & Hartman, 1985). The 1980 Adoption Assistance and Child Welfare Act mandated "reasonable efforts" to prevent family break up and rapid identification of permanent placement options. As dissatisfaction with the rise of out-of-home placements grew steadily, a philosophy of family preservation became the major trend of the 1980s. Programs designed to prevent out-ofhome placements emerged throughout the country that included intensive, round-the-clock interventions to teach families new skills and resource acquisition (Kelly & Blythe, 2000). The 1993 Family Preservation and Family Support program increased funding for intensive services to keep families together, reflecting the view that family preservation programs were the best way to remedy problems that led to foster care placements. These programs suffered a resounding backlash in the mid-1990s because of media stories based on horror stories of children harmed by their parents even after the system's interventions, the continued rise in child maltreatment reporting, and the failure of family preservation programs to prevent out-of-home placements (Kelly & Blythe, 2000; Schuerman, Rzepnicki, Littell, & Chak, 1993). Although some researchers pointed out that the growth in foster care caseloads was fueled by increases in poverty and substance abuse, others focused on inadequacies of the child welfare system, including limitations in caseworkers' knowledge and skills, mishaps in child welfare cases, and the out-of-control caseload growth (Curtis & McCullough, 1993; Esposito & Fine, 1985; Gleeson, O'Donnell & Bonecutter, 1997; Huxtable, 1994; lieberman, Horny & Russell, 1989; McGowan & Walsh, 2000; Ozawa, 1993; Pecora, Whittaker, Maluccio & Earth, 1992). These concerns led to research funding to examine the functioning of the child welfare system and those who worked within it, and ultimately led to the passage of the 1997 Adoption and Safe Fami lies Act, which emphasized child safety and established shorter timelines for termination of parental rights (Kelly & Blythe, 2000; Lindsey, 1994; McGowan & Walsh, 1985; Tracy & Pine, 2000). …

Outcomes for a Transitional Living Program Serving LGBTQ Youth in New York City.

Abstract: Providing stable housing for runaway and homeless youth is a major function of a transitional living program This article introduces the focus of one program working with LGBTQ youth in New York City and discusses some issues to consider when working with this population The article also presents data associated with young people's lives after discharge In any discussion of outcomes, both reason for discharge and length of stay play important roles in whether or not an exit is safe Regardless of these two elements, the places youth move to when leaving programs are crucial to their safety and well-being The exit can be safe even when a young person is discharged early from a program This article presents types of exits, as well as status of employment and school enrollment at exit Some youth and staff-identified lessons gained in the program also are discussed in detail Types of aftercare services sought by discharged youth are specified This article also describes any differences in outcomes for youth with and without foster care experience

Parents and their young adult children: transitions to adulthood.

Abstract: This paper considers how parents are affected by and play a role in the lives of their young adult children. The years during which young people make the transition to adulthood has changed significantly in recent years--this transition now takes place over a longer period of time. We describe how young people experience these years; how they affect their parents and parent-child relationships; and how this time period is experienced by vulnerable youth.

Patterns of Child Maltreatment Referrals among Asian and Pacific Islander Families.

Abstract: Much of the available data on Asian American families who become involved with the child welfare system relies on global ethnic categories, such as the category Asian/Pacific Islander. To explore the diversity of experience that is hidden by such categories, this article analyzes two years of child maltreatment referrals for Asian and Pacific Island families in Washington state. The study findings show that considerable variation exists within the Asian and Pacific Islander population with regard to child protection referrals. Although Asian Americans as a whole were less likely to be referred to child protective services than other groups, the within group picture that these data capture is considerably more complex. Some Asian/Pacific Islander ethnic groups, particularly those which have experienced higher levels of social and economic stress, were more at risk of child welfare involvement than other groups. Such findings underscore the need for child welfare policies and practice that are sensitive to the considerable variability within the Asian/Pacific Islander community. Language: en

The economics of adoption of children from foster care.

Abstract: Federal initiatives since 1996 have intensified the efforts of states to achieve adoption for children in foster care. For many waiting children, the path to adoption is long. The authors offer an economic analysis of adoption from foster care, with an emphasis on the reasons why achieving the goal of adoption for all waiting children may be so difficult. The authors then estimate the determinants of adoptions from foster care across the states using data for fiscal years 1996 and 1997. Adoption assistance subsidy rates stand out as the most important determinant of adoptions from foster care, followed by use of alternatives (e.g., intercountry adoption). Adoptive matching on the basis of race does not appear to prevent adoptions from foster care in the aggregate, leaving flaws in the matching process, such as a lack of information and difficulty using the Interstate Compact on the Placement of Children (ICPC), as a primary reason why children wait.

Language delays among foster children: implications for policy and practice.

Abstract: This article highlights the centrality of language in early childhood development and the potential for language delays to negatively affect long-term outcomes in educational and social domains. Given the high rate of language delays in the foster care population, an emphasis should be placed on assessing language skills among children ages 6 and younger entering foster care. The authors describe several existing approaches to assessing language skills and discuss obstacles to the widespread implementation of systematic evaluation among foster children. Finally, the authors discuss the need for research and programming to establish evidence-based practices that encourage the remediation of language delays in this highly vulnerable population.

Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Foster Parents: Strengths and Challenges for the Child Welfare System.

Abstract: Historically, a shortage of skilled and dedicated foster parents has existed in America. Lesbian, gay, or bisexual (LBG) foster parents have received little attention in the published literature. This article documents the challenges and successes of a group of 60 LGB foster parents. All participants provided foster parenting for public (state or county) agencies. The primary successes of this group included meaningful and gratifying parenting and successful testing of whether adoption might be a natural next step after foster parenting. The primary challenges included insensitive, inappropriate, and difficult social workers; state or local laws that worked against successful foster parenting by LGB adults; failure to recognize parents' partners; and lack of support by the system to acknowledge the important role of LGB parents. Numerous recommendations are identified for improving how LGB foster parents are supported within child welfare systems including foster parent and social worker training in LGB issues. Every year, a very large number of children enter the foster care system in the United States. On September 30, 2003, 523,000 youth were in the system. On average, they were 10 years old and stayed 31 months in foster care. Many (46%) were placed with adults who were unrelated to them. A high and disproportionate percentage of them were youth of color: 35% African American and 17% Hispanic. Little change has occurred since 1999 in the numbers, characteristics, or lengths of stay for youth entering care (U.S. Children's Bureau, 2005). Most youth enter foster care because they experience neglect or abuse from their parents (Child Welfare League of America [CWLA], 2005). Foster care systems often compound earlier traumas by placing youth in more than one foster home over time, thus increasing instability. A recent longitudinal study documented that foster home stability is linked with more positive outcomes after exiting foster care. In contrast, placement disruptions lead to less desirable outcomes. Overall, long-term outcomes for foster youth are discouraging because as adults, they experience higher levels of mental health challenges and post-traumatic stress disorder (Pecora, Williams, Kessler, Downs, O'Brien, Hiripi, & Morello, 2003). A chronic and critical shortage of foster homes exists (Rhodes, Orme, Cox, & Buehler, 2003). In 2000, only 174,000 licensed kinship and non-relative foster homes were in the United States (CWLA, 2005). This shortage is fueled by the fact that many fami lies discontinue fostering within the first six months and foster parents often are asked to provide homes for more youth than they deem optimal and eventually burn out (Rhodes et al.). The urgent need for safe, quality foster homes is obvious. Characteristics of adults who are successful foster parents have been documented before. Among these are a deep concern for youth, positive attitudes toward children in need, and good psychological and physical health (Buehler, Cox & Cuddeback, 2003; Tyebjee, 2003). While political, religious, and environmental factors appear unrelated to willingness to provide foster parenting, the sexual orientation of prospective parents may be a factor: Gay and lesbian adults show much higher than average interest and willingness to foster and adopt (Tyebjee). Logic would suggest that because LGB adults may be more interested in being foster parents, they would be recruited more actively by public agencies eager to provide safe, welcoming homes. Societal resistance to LGB parents, however, is well documented: Homophobia, political reactivity, and social stereotyping abound (Donovan & Wilson, 2005; Ferrero, Freker, & Foster, 2005; James, 1998; McIntyre, 1994). A growing and substantial body of evidence indicates that LGB adults are equivalent to heterosexual adults in the quality and aptitude of parenting their own and adoptive children, and that their offspring are as personally and socially successful as children of heterosexual parents (Kurdek, 2004; Patterson, 1992, 1996, 2003; Patterson & D'Augelli, 1998; Stacey & Biblarz, 2001). …

Child death review teams: a vital component of child protection.

Abstract: The alarming number of children killed and seriously injured as a result of child maltreatment and neglect has led to increased calls for action. In response, interdisciplinary and multiagency child death review teams have emerged as an important component of child protection. Paradoxically, child death review teams are among the least visible and understood elements in efforts to protect children. This article examines the role and functions of child death review teams and their contributions to child welfare in practice, prevention, and policy. Language: en

The relationship between child disability and living arrangement in child welfare

Abstract: The influence of disabilities on placement outcomes was examined for 277 children who were removed from their biological parents due to substantiated maltreatment. Results indicated that children with a disability were less likely to reunify and more likely to reside in nonkin foster care two years later than typical children. Children with cognitive, emotional /behavioral, and physical disabilities were over four times more likely to be permanently living in nonkin foster care than to be reunified.

The legal rights of LGBT youth in state custody: what child welfare and juvenile justice professionals need to know.

Abstract: Youth in state custody, regardless of their sexual orientation or gender identity, have federal and state constitutional and statutory rights. These rights guarantee a young person safety in their placement as well as freedom from deprivation of their liberty interest. Many lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) youth have these rights violated on a regular basis. Many cases in both the child welfare and juvenile justice contexts have resulted in extensive and time-consuming consent decrees as well as sizable damages awards. Knowledge of a youth's legal rights can help providers avoid legal liability while creating a safer and healthier environment for LGBT youth. This article provides a general overview of the successful federal legal claims that youth in the child welfare and juvenile justice systems have made, discussion of the rights generated as a result, particle application of these rights to the experiences of LGBT youth with hypothetical scenarios, a focus on specific rights that emanate from certain state laws, and a focus on specific concerns of transgender youth.

Achieving Permanency for LGBTQ Youth.

Abstract: This article brings together two significant efforts in the child welfare field: achieving permanence for youth in out-of-home care and meeting the needs of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and questioning (LGBTQ) youth. During the past several years, a national movement has taken place to assure all children and youth have a permanent family connection before leaving the child welfare system; however, LGBTQ youth are not routinely included in the permanency discussions. At the same time, efforts in addressing the needs of LGBTQ youth have increased, but permanency is rarely mentioned as a need. This article offers models of permanence and practices to facilitate permanence with LGBTQ youth and their families. It also offers a youth-driven, individualized process, using youth development principles to achieve relational, physical, and legal permanence. Reunification efforts are discussed, including services, supports, and education required for youth to return to their family of origin. For those who cannot return home, other family resources are explored. The article also discusses cultural issues as they affect permanence for LGBTQ youth, and, finally, addresses the need for ongoing support services to sustain and support permanency. The Adoption and Safe Families Act (ASFA) of 1997 requires states to assure the permanency, safety, and well-being for all children and youth in the foster care system. Although considerable progress has been made in achieving permanency for many children and youth, some youth in foster care-particularly lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and questioning (LGBTQ) youth-have not fully benefited from ASFA's focus on permanency. This article discusses two separate and distinct movements within the child welfare field: the development of new models of permanency services for older children and youth in foster care and the development of services for LGBTQ youth. Despite innovative efforts across the United States to improve services and outcomes in both of these areas during recent years, a focus on integrating these two movements is lacking. Services for LGBTQ youth have not focused on permanency and, as a consequence, these youth continue to leave foster care-often running away or being emancipated-without caring, committed adults in their lives. This article proposes approaches that should be taken to ensure that permanency is achieved for all LGBTQ youth in foster care. The Development of New Models of Permanency Services for Youth In the 1980s and through much of the 1990s, long-term foster care and independent living were recognized as acceptable options for older children and youth in foster care and were used broadly as "permanency" goals without question (Westat, 1986). Since the mid-1990s, however, treating these outcomes as permanency goals has been questioned, at least to the extent that they are used as "across the board" plans for older children and youth in care (Landsman & Malone, 1999). Research indicates that long-term foster care is associated with psychological harm and children in long-term care are more likely to have serious behavioral problems (Doran & Berliner, 2001). It also has become clear that youth who age out of foster care to live "independently" face serious risks to their health and well-being (Scannapieco, 1996). This recognition led Congress to statutorily delete long-term foster care as an accepted permanency option with the passage of ASFA (RL. 105-89) in 1997 (Renne, 2002). Adolescence is a critical period of self-development, which is key in the formation and maintenance of quality relationships with adults (Charles & Nelson, 2000; Hair, Jager, & Garrett, 2002). The use of mentors and role models to help all youth bridge the transition to adulthood has received greater attention, while the development of strong youth-adult relationships has been emphasized to provide a foundation for the young person's psychological health, successful academic performance, and success in later marriage and family relationships (Hair, Jager, & Garrett). …

Slamming the closet door: working with gay and lesbian youth in care.

Abstract: The developmental challenges of gay and lesbian youth are well understood by professionals in the field. Increasingly, professionals are extending this understanding to the plight of gay and lesbian youth living in out-of-home care. Such youth face additional challenges and a lack of support that greatly complicates the development of a positive identity. Inherent in these additional challenges is the responsiveness of professionals mandated to work with youth. This study explores critical worker competencies for supporting gay and lesbian foster youth. Twenty-one youth were interviewed and asked to describe workers who were facilitative and workers who inhibited positive development. The interview transcripts were assessed to identify critical competencies. This article shares critical youth themes and underlying practice competencies.

The model standards project: creating inclusive systems for LGBT youth in out-of-home care.

Abstract: This article describes the Model Standards Project (MSP), a collaboration of Legal Services for Children and the National Center for Lesbian Rights. The MSP developed a set of model professional standards governing the care of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) youth in out-of-home care. This article provides an overview of the experiences of LGBT youth in state custody, drawing from existing research, as well as the actual experiences of youth who participated in the project or spoke with project staff. It will describe existing professional standards applicable to child welfare and juvenile justice systems, and the need for standards specifically focused on serving LGBT youth. The article concludes with recommendations for implementation of the standards in local jurisdictions. On any given day, well over half a million children and youth nationally live away from their families and in the custody of the foster care or juvenile justice systems. It is estimated that lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) youth represent somewhere between 4% and 10% of this population (Lambda Legal Defense and Education Fund, 2001; Urban Justice Center, 2001). Many young people are in out-of-home care solely as a result of their LGBT identity, including those rejected, neglected, or abused by their families of origin; those forced to live on the streets and engage in illegal behavior to survive; and those labeled "sex offenders" because their behavior is perceived as deviant or perverse. In the past several years, the professional literature has acknowledged the presence of LGBT youth in the child welfare and juvenile justice systems and has begun to document the unique challenges confronting these youth. Innovative programs have been developed to serve LGBT youth in out-of-home care, although explicitly inclusive and specialized services are still rare. The literature also has begun to identify the many ways in which public systems fail LGBT youth in their care (DeCrescenzo & Mallon, 1991; DeCrescenzo & Mallon, 2000). No organized effort has taken place, however, to reach professional consensus on the standards that should govern the care and treatment of LGBT youth who rely on public systems to provide for them. Although there are well-accepted professional standards governing child welfare and juvenile justice services, these standards do not adequately address the unique needs of LGBT youth (see Standards of Excellence for Child Welfare Services, by Child Welfare League of America, www.cwla.org/programs/standards/default.htm; Standards for Health Services in Juvenile Detention and Confinement Facilities, by the National Commission on Correctional Health Care, www.ncchc.org/pubs/catalog.html#34; the ABA Standards of Practice for Lawyers Who Represent Children in Abuse and Neglect Cases, by the American Bar Association, www.abanet.org/child/ catalog/books.html; and Standards for Juvenile Detention Facilities, by the American Correctional Association, www.aca.org/store/ bookstore/view.asp?Product_ID=121). The Model Standards Project In 2002, staff members at Legal Services for Children and the National Center for Lesbian Rights launched the Model Standards Project (MSP), a multiyear, national project to develop and disseminate model professional standards for serving LGBT youth in outof-home care (MSP has been supported at different stages by the Kevin Mossier Foundation, the Stuart Foundation, the Annie E. Casey Foundation, the Evelyn and Walter Haas, Jr. Fund, the Tides Foundation, and an anonymous donor). Legal Services for Children, founded in 1975, provides direct legal representation and social work services to children and youth in the San Francisco Bay Area. The service's mission is to provide free legal and social services to children and youth to stabilize their lives and help them realize their full potential (see www.lsc-sf.org). National Center for Lesbian Rights is a national legal resource center with a primary commitment to advancing the rights and safety of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people and their families through a program of litigation, public policy advocacy and public education. …

Behavioral health service use and costs among children in foster care.

Abstract: This article compares behavioral health service use and cost for foster care versus nonfoster care children; children before, during, and after foster care placement; and successfully reunified versus nonsuccessfully reunified foster care children. Behavioral health service costs for children in foster care were higher than for children not in foster care. Children in foster care used more services during their foster care placement than before placement and after discharge. Nonsuccessfully reunified children received a significantly larger quantity of services than those successfully reunified.

Busting out of the child welfare closet: lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender-affirming approaches to child welfare.

Abstract: Tell them about how you're never really a whole person if you remain silent, because there's always that one little piece inside you that wants to be spoken out, and if you keep ignoring it, it gets madder and madder and hotter and hotter, and if you don't speak it out one day it will just up and punch you in the mouth from the inside. -Audre Lorde (1984, p. 42) This special issue of Child Welfare emerged from a series of conversations with child welfare colleagues who partici pated in the work conducted by CWLA and the Lambda Legal Defense and Education Fund as they developed a unique partnership entitled, Fostering Transitions: CWLA/Lambda Legal Joint Initiative To Support LGBTQ Youth and Adults Involved with the Child Welfare System. A special issue about this topic never has been published before, and many wondered why so little concern has been expressed about the needs of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBTQ) persons affected by child welfare in national, state, and local policies; child welfare agency practices; and professional publications. For the most part, with few exceptions, the situations that gay and lesbian children, youth, and families endure are representative examples of child welfare in its most challenged state. The very existence of this population is generally unacknowledged publicly by most child welfare professionals except when a particular case that pertains to sexual orientation is blared across the print news or sensationalized in the mass media. This lack of acknowledgement by traditional child welfare practitioners and policymakers is in stark contrast to the heightened consciousness about the population, as evidenced by the runaway and homeless youth programs across the nation, who seem to have a much higher level of comfort in addressing the needs of LGBTQ children, youth, and families. In this special issue, we have brought together an array of diverse opinions by practitioners, policymakers, and others concerned about children, youth, and families who struggle with issues of gender and sexual orientation in their deliberations of policy and practice alternatives. This special issue is written from an unapologetic and decidedly lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT)-affirming perspective to assist practitioners, scholars, and policymakers in shaping these deliberations. Clearly, issues of sexual and gender orientation have been assigned to a low position in public debates about how to improve child welfare practices and programs. The issue is seldom raised as a determining factor in the development of policies for families and youth and children. As highlighted in this issue, however, it is a critical factor in the lives of countless children, youth, and families who are affected by issues of gender and sexual orientation on a daily basis, and some great programs for LGBTQ children, youth, and families are emerging around the country. Changes in the country's attitudes toward LGBT persons and civil rights struggles by LGBT persons themselves demand a conscious effort to include issues of gender and sexual orientation in child welfare practice and policy debates. A deferral will serve only to increase social costs to society and perpetuate harm to thousands gay and lesbian children, youth, and families whose lives are affected by the child welfare system. One might ask, "what could be gained by elevating gender and sexual orientation issues as a factor in the policy-development phase?" We would respond by asking, "what could be lost by not incorporating the unique needs of LGBT persons?" What Child Welfare Needs to Do to Respond to LGBT Children, Youth, and Families Resolving the child welfare imbroglio for LGBT children, youth, and families-as well as all children, youth, and families-requires changes in both the policies and practices of child welfare agencies (Mallon, 1999). These changes must be based on an intentional and deliberate recognition of the uniqueness of one's sexual orientation, so that approaches can enhance family functioning and the well-being of children and youth. …

Trends in popular parenting books and the need for parental critical thinking.

Abstract: Parents continually struggle to find better ways to make decisions regarding their children, and many use popular parenting books. The purpose of this article is to discuss the critical thinking skills needed by parents and practitioners who work with parents to make informed parenting decisions influenced by popular media. It also addresses strategies on sleeping, cosleeping, feeding and toilet training in popular parenting books, and the corresponding empirical evidence found in the scientific literature. Parenting tends to be romanticized in television and books, with sweet, perfect little angels depicted with happy and stress-free parents. The reality of parenting actually is quite different. Parents often are wrought with anxieties over their children's feeding and sleeping schedules, discipline, and childcare. They worry about doing the right thing with their children and are bombarded with books, magazines, the Internet, and friends dispersing conflicting advice. Parents continually struggle to find better ways to make decisions about their children, and many use popular parenting books, the Internet and more recently, television shows such as Supernanny and Nanny 911 to find alternatives. Parenting in many of these forums is simplified and rigid, emphasizing control rather than the provision of guidance (Kohn, 2005). Complex problems are reduced to singular unrealistic interventions without acknowledging the demands and sacrifice inherent in parenting. Practitioners working with parents need to explore and understand the ideas parents who read popular parenting books may have. Practitioners are in a unique position to influence parental thinking about difficult parenting decisions. Practitioners also need to develop critical thinking skills to analyze the adequacy, developmental appropriateness, and applicability of parenting strategies presented in popular media. Critical thinking is a challenging process, even for well-resourced parents and practitioners. With the abundance of parenting information available, the ability to think critically about the content of such information and make decisions based on it is imperative. Parenting is important throughout a child's life, but the beginning years are one of the most critical psychological periods (Armstrong, 1997). Because parenting practices for infants and toddlers occupy a period of coexisting vulnerability and tremendous developmental gain, this article will focus on major issues for parenting that age group. The purpose of this article is two-fold. First, it discusses critical thinking skills needed by parents and practitioners who work with parents to make informed decisions influenced by popular media. Second, the author reviews strategies on sleeping, cosleeping, feeding, and toilet training outlined in popular parenting books and the corresponding empirical evidence found in the scientific literature. In each section, specific critical thinking questions are included as a tool to guide practitioners and parents in evaluating parenting strategies. Critical Thinking Skills and Parenting Parenting practitioners, social workers, and other supportive professionals can help parents develop the skills they need to critically analyze parenting information. Equipping parents who consult popular books for parenting advice with critical thinking skills will enable them to identify problems if they exist, recognize the possible contradictions in solutions, clarify issues, identify their values, and use sound criteria for evaluating the information presented (Gambrill, 2006). This strategy is essential to making wise decisions because parenting philosophies and recommendations are ever evolving. Critical thinking is the practice of thinking about knowledge. It emphasizes well-reasoned decisionmaking and values "truth over prejudice and ignorance" (Gambrill, 2006, p. 72). Applying critical thinking skills, therefore, requires a person to compare advice against a standard, which may be research-based information from a reliable authority or that person's own beliefs and values. …

Issues of shared parenting of LGBTQ children and youth in foster care: preparing foster parents for new roles.

Abstract: Foster parents have increasingly assumed new and challenging roles during the past decade. Meeting the developmental, attachment, and grieving needs of children and youth in out of home care is challenging by itself, but can become even more difficult with the issues that arise when the child is lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, or questioning (LGBTQ). Preservice and in-service foster parent training programs can strengthen shared parenting skills by focusing on the universal critical issues of safety, well being, and permanence for children and youth in foster care. This article will focus on these skill areas: (1) sharing parenting to promote healthy growth and development of LGBTQ youth in foster care, (2) threats to safety of LGBTQ youth in foster care, and (3) general challenges and strategies for preparing foster parents of LGBTQ youth to build support systems.

Risk assessment in child sexual abuse cases.

Abstract: Despite continuing improvements in risk assessment for child protective services (CPS) and movement toward actuarial prediction of child maltreatment, current models have not adequately addressed child sexual abuse. Sexual abuse cases present unique and ambiguous indicators to the investigating professional, and risk factors differ from those related to physical abuse and neglect. Incorporation of research on risk factors specifically related to sexual offender recidivism into existing CPS risk assessment models may improve the ability to assess the risk of future sexual maltreatment to children. This article reviews the literature on risk factors for sexual offense recidivism and discusses their relevance and application to CPS assessment models. An evidence-based model for assessing risk in child sexual abuse cases is proposed. Language: en