Showing papers in "Elementary School Journal in 1997"
TL;DR: Project-based science as discussed by the authors is a pedagogy that addresses the reform recommendations in science education, focusing on student-designed inquiry that is organized by investigations to answer driving questions, including collaboration among learners and others, the use of new technology, and the creation of authentic artifacts that represent student understanding.
Abstract: Recommendations for reform in science education place a premium on students' understanding of scientific concepts and their ability to identify problems, conduct inquiry, and use information flexibly. They call for an appreciation for how ideas evolve and are validated. In this article we discuss changes in ideas about learning that underpin the reforms. We then describe our experiences with project-based science, a pedagogy that addresses the reform recommendations. Project-based science focuses on student-designed inquiry that is organized by investigations to answer driving questions, includes collaboration among learners and others, the use of new technology, and the creation of authentic artifacts that represent student understanding. Finally, we illustrate the challenges this type of innovation poses for teachers' classroom practice, for professional development, and for policy.
378Â citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors explore methods for helping students generate conceptual mathematical explanations during peer-mediated learning activities in general education classrooms in grades 2, 3, and 4, where participants were assigned randomly to three treatments: peer mediated instruction (PMI), elaborated help, and contrast.
Abstract: The purpose of this classroom-based experiment was to explore methods for helping students generate conceptual mathematical explanations during peer-mediated learning activities. Participants were 40 general education classrooms in grades 2, 3, and 4, which were assigned randomly to 3 treatments: peer-mediated instruction (PMI) with training in how to offer and receive elaborated help (PMI-Elaborated); PMI with training in elaborated help and in methods for providing conceptual mathematical explanations (PMI-Elaborated + Conceptual); and contrast (i.e., no PMI). Teachers implemented PMI treatments for 18 weeks with their naturally constituted mathematics classes. From each of the 40 classes, we pre- and posttested the mathematics achievement of 4 students who represented 4 points on the achievement continuum. We also coded student interactions from tutoring generalization sessions videotaped 10 weeks after all training had been completed. Analyses revealed that PMI-Elaborated + Conceptual tutors asked mor...
202Â citations
TL;DR: The authors studied 14 fifth-and sixth-grade students' challenge seeking during project-based mathematics instruction in 1 classroom and found that challenge seekers self-reported a tolerance for failure, a learning goal orientation, and a higher than average self-efficacy in math.
Abstract: We studied 14 fifth- and sixth-grade students' challenge seeking during project-based mathematics instruction in 1 classroom. We drew on 5 areas of research: academic risk taking, achievement goals, self-efficacy, volition, and affect. Data included students' responses to a tolerance for failure survey, an adaptive learning pattern survey, and 3 individual interviews about their actions during a math project. Qualitative and quantitative analyses suggested 2 patterns of student self-perceptions and behaviors: "challenge seekers" and "challenge avoiders." Challenge seekers self-reported a tolerance for failure, a learning goal orientation, and a higher than average self-efficacy in math. Challenge avoiders self-reported a higher negative affect after failure, a more performance-focused goal orientation, a lower self-efficacy in math, and a greater use of surface strategies (i.e., strategies requiring minimal processing of information). We illustrate the consistency of these patterns and reveal the diversit...
185Â citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examine a cross-section of craft knowledge and research-based literature on science learning beyond the classroom, describe informal science education programs, and discuss implications for enhanced science teaching.
Abstract: Science education reform documents call for science to be taught in the manner that students learn best, by conducting hands-on, engaging investigations using simple everyday materials. Often overlooked in the redesign of science education, informal science learning environments such as science centers, museums, and zoos provide students with captivating science experiences that can be related closely to curricular objectives. In this article I examine a cross-section of craft knowledge and research-based literature on science learning beyond the classroom, describe informal science education programs, and discuss implications for enhanced science teaching. The article focuses on the importance of informal science learning experiences, in the context of a variety of out-of-school science environments, for children and for in-service and preservice teachers. Informal science education environments provide students with unique, engaging science learning opportunities and classroom teachers with a wealth of ...
141Â citations
TL;DR: In this article, a 3-month-long discourse carried out by sixth graders is analyzed to show that the basic commitments that enable scientific progress can be realized in elementary schools.
Abstract: Postmodernist challenges to the status of science and scientific knowledge have intensified concerns about how these topics should be treated in schools. Science, we argue, need not be presented either as a grand march toward Truth or as a body of dubious opinions and practices. Instead, it may be presented as a continuing effort to improve on existing knowledge-an effort students can participate in. Instead of an enthroned "scientific method," there is a commitment to discourse that advances mutual understanding. A 3-month-long discourse carried out by sixth graders is analyzed to show that the basic commitments that enable scientific progress can be realized in elementary schools. To be at home in a knowledge-based society, people need to be able to move freely between scientific and other modes of thought, according to the situation and their purposes. The sixth graders' discourse provides a striking illustration of what this can mean.
111Â citations
TL;DR: This article found that a majority of teachers (99%) believed that addressing students' mental health needs was part of their role but felt somewhat burdened by these needs, especially in classes with students who exhibited greater difficulties.
Abstract: This study addresses (1) regular classroom teachers' views of their role in promoting their students' mental health (N = 95) and feelings of burden associated with students' mental health needs (N = 192), (2) teachers' beliefs and reported instructional practices associated with these mental health-related beliefs, and (3) the sensitivity of teachers to the mental health needs of individual students. To address teachers' sensitivity, we compared fifth-grade students whom teachers nominated as being able to benefit from mental health services to students who were not nominated on a series of teacher and student self-ratings of adjustment (N = 796). Survey results showed that a majority of teachers (99%) believed that addressing students' mental health needs was part of their role but felt somewhat burdened by these needs, especially in classes with students who exhibited greater difficulties. Teachers' sense of efficacy and reported use of task-focused instructional practices were negatively associated wit...
104Â citations
TL;DR: Most evidence from 13 studies as mentioned in this paper suggests that collaboration between friends supports cognitive performance, including seeking scarce resources, problem solving, creative activity, and reaching consensus in discussion, and teachers must frequently base organizational decisions in the classroom on competing options but should consider giving friends the opportunity to work together as often as possible.
Abstract: Most evidence from 13 studies we examined suggests that collaboration between friends supports cognitive performance. Superior performance has been demonstrated on a variety of tasks including seeking scarce resources, problem solving, creative activity, and reaching consensus in discussion. Based mostly on observations in 2-person settings, current studies demonstrate the benefits that can occur when friends, as compared with nonfriends, are co-workers on cognitive tasks. Teachers must frequently base organizational decisions in the classroom on competing options but should consider giving friends the opportunity to work together as often as possible.
97Â citations
TL;DR: The authors synthesize research on the importance of stories in classrooms, on storytelling form and how it differs from culture to culture, and on some implications of these different traditions of storytelling, and conclude by proposing some ideas teachers might consider as they plan instruction on world literature.
Abstract: In this article I synthesize research on the importance of stories in classrooms, on storytelling form and how it differs from culture to culture, and on some implications of these different traditions of storytelling. I draw on qualitative and quantitative research. I conclude by proposing some ideas teachers might consider as they plan instruction on world literature and by offering directions for future research.
92Â citations
TL;DR: The authors compare two approaches to define functional scientific literacy and helping students to achieve it: a canonical approach focusing on the knowledge, skills, and habits of mind of literate individuals and a sociocultural approach, focusing on language, values, personal identity, and other factors that affect an individual's participation in the activities of a community.
Abstract: Recent reforms have emphasized scientific literacy for all Americans as a key goal of science education. In this article we compare 2 approaches to defining functional scientific literacy and helping students to achieve it. The first, which we label a canonical approach, focuses on the knowledge, skills, and habits of mind of literate individuals. The second, which we label a sociocultural approach, focuses on language, values, personal identity, and other factors that affect an individual's participation in the activities of a community. Both canonical and sociocultural approaches can play a useful role in analyzing events in science classrooms. It has been helpful to us to think of the students as orchestrating the complex interplay among 3 types of foci for their attention: interpersonal relationships, scientific activity, and task requirements. We show with a case study of a group of 5 sixth graders from our research how the interplay of these factors can subvert the scientific intentions of a group a...
89Â citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigated the application and development of spatial thinking in an instructional unit on area and motions, part of a largescale curriculum development project funded by the National Science Foundation.
Abstract: In this study we investigated the application and development of spatial thinking in an instructional unit on area and motions, part of a largescale curriculum development project funded by the National Science Foundation. We also investigated the role of noncomputer and computer interactions in that development. We collected data from paper-and-pencil assessments and case studies as we pilot tested the unit with 2 third graders and field tested it in 3 third-grade classrooms. Results revealed strong positive effects on spatial abilities and the establishment of spatial-numeric connections; they also provided information about students' strategies for solving the unit's spatial and spatial-numeric problems. A distinguishing feature of these strategies was the degree to which students applied a unitizing operation to construct spatial and numerical units and "units of units."
89Â citations
TL;DR: The Demonstration Classroom Project as discussed by the authors was designed to determine whether full implementation of this curriculum could improve the achievement of Native Hawaiian students (n = 281 in year 1, 608 in year 2) in grades K-6.
Abstract: In this article we describe the whole-literacy curriculum, a social constructivist approach to literacy instruction that encompasses 6 aspects of literacy, writers' and readers' workshops, gradelevel achievement benchmarks, and portfolio assessment. The Demonstration Classroom Project was designed to determine whether full implementation of this curriculum could improve the achievement of Native Hawaiian students (n = 281 in year 1, 608 in year 2) in grades K-6. In the first year of the project, 13 teachers from 7 schools volunteered to participate in a process that involved monthly observations and goal-setting to improve their teaching. In the second year, 9 teachers from year 1 were joined by 20 additional teachers. Observations indicated that teachers entered the project with considerable proficiency in organizing their classrooms and giving students learning opportunities consistent with the whole-literacy curriculum. However, they required support to implement portfolio assessment and certain aspect...
TL;DR: In this article, three theoretical bases for the reform of science teacher education are elaborated: constructivism, reflection, and professional community, and the complex tasks involved in learning and understanding science concepts and science-specific pedagogy suggest the need for teacher education and development that span preservice and in-service education throughout the professional lifetime.
Abstract: Historical perspectives and developments in the teaching and learning of elementary school science and the continuing calls for reform in science education provide the context for this article. Key influences on science teaching and on teacher education primarily since 1955 are examined and offered as a foundation for the development of a new paradigm for elementary science teacher education. Citing contemporary practices and scholarship, we build a case for theoretical constructs that can inform policy and programs in science teacher education. Three theoretical bases for the reform of science teacher education are elaborated: constructivism, reflection, and professional community. The complex tasks involved in learning and understanding science concepts and science-specific pedagogy suggest the need for teacher education and development that span preservice and in-service education throughout the professional lifetime.
TL;DR: This article examined the attitudes of girls toward themselves and their classmates, and their behavior, in a girls-only seventh- and eighth-grade (algebra) math classroom (with 1 teacher) in a co-educational public middle school.
Abstract: In this study, conducted over 2 years, I examined the attitudes of girls toward themselves and their classmates, and their behavior, in a girls-only seventh- (prealgebra) and eighth-grade (algebra) math classroom (with 1 teacher) in a coeducational public middle school. Classroom observations and interviews with 14 of the 24 girls provided the data. The girls reported, and the observational data revealed, that the girls were more likely to ask and answer questions about subject matter in the math class than they were in their other classes, which were coeducational. The girls also said that the girls-only setting enhanced their ability to learn math and their view of themselves as mathematicians. Without exception, they preferred the girls-only environment to a coeducational classroom.
TL;DR: This paper used a classroom interview with students to assess and promote self-appraisal of their academic learning, and found that the total Worksamples Interview scores were correlated significantly with scores on measures of strategic reading, school attitudes, and literacy habits outside school.
Abstract: In this article we describe the use of a classroom interview with students to assess and promote self-appraisal of their academic learning. The 10-item Worksamples Interview stimulates students to review and analyze their schoolwork on a variety of cognitive and motivational dimensions. Students are asked to select examples from their recent work that reveal different features of their accomplishments and to provide self-evaluations of the work. 93 students in years 4, 5, and 6 in 1 Australian school (equivalent to grades 3, 4, and 5 in the United States) participated in the Worksamples Interview as well as in a larger, longitudinal research project that yielded additional data that could be correlated with interview responses. Older students were able to explain their work samples in greater detail and with more insight. The total Worksamples Interview scores were correlated significantly with scores on measures of strategic reading, school attitudes, and literacy habits outside school. Thus, the intervi...
TL;DR: The authors investigated elementary school students' perceptions of grouping formats for reading instruction and found that students at all levels of reading ability liked mixedability groups and mixed-ability pairs most, followed by whole-class instruction.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to investigate elementary school students' perceptions of grouping formats for reading instruction. Participants were 549 third-, fourth-, and fifth-grade urban, mostly minority students, including 23 students with learning disabilities (LD), in 3 schools in a large southeastern district. Students' perceptions were assessed by means of a questionnaire that included both closed- and open-ended items. Results revealed no grade or gender differences. Students reported that whole-class instruction and working alone were used more frequently than group or pair instruction; some students reported that they had no experience with certain grouping formats, particularly pairs, in their current reading class. Students at all levels of reading ability liked mixed-ability groups and mixed-ability pairs most, followed by whole-class instruction. Same-ability groups and working alone were the least liked grouping formats. Students perceived that in mixed-ability groups students get more he...
TL;DR: The National Research Council's National Science Education Standards (NSEES) as mentioned in this paper describe a vision of scientific literacy for all students, which includes content, teaching, assessment, professional development, school and district programs, and the science education system.
Abstract: As a whole, the National Research Council's National Science Education Standards describes a vision of scientific literacy for all students. Taken separately, the standards for content, teaching, assessment, professional development, school and district programs, and the science education system provide criteria to measure progress toward that vision. After reporting on the process for developing them, I describe 4 distinctive features of the standards. The first is the emphasis on all students understanding science. The next is the expanded definition of science, which is grounded in inquiry, includes the facts, concepts, laws, and theories of science subject matter, and extends to human dimensions of science. Another feature is the inclusion of standards for science content, teaching, and assessment in the same document in mutually reinforcing ways. Finally, the professional development, program, and system standards provide criteria to support the vision of science education. I discuss 3 barriers to th...
TL;DR: The authors conducted a replication study of a study conducted in 1982 to determine the amount and type of writing in which elementary students in 1 district in Kentucky were engaged throughout the school day and the nature of writing instruction provided by teachers, finding that teachers in 1995 spent twice as much time teaching writing as in 1982 and that students were engaged in writing 2-3 times as often.
Abstract: This research was a replication of a study conducted in 1982 to determine the amount and type of writing in which elementary students in 1 district in Kentucky were engaged throughout the school day and the nature of writing instruction provided by teachers. Data were collected through surveys of all elementary teachers in the district and observations of the teachers' writing instruction and 2 target students' writing activities in 12 classrooms (2 classrooms at 3 grade levels in 2 schools). Findings indicated that teachers in 1995 spent twice as much time teaching writing as in 1982 and that students were engaged in writing 2-3 times as often. More important, in 1995 students were spending more time on higher-level writing activities involving the composition of extended text and less time on lower-level activities such as filling in workbooks and worksheets and copying from the board. Teachers reported that the increased emphasis on writing in 1995 was due primarily to new statewide assessments that us...
TL;DR: This article found that teachers tend to form heterogeneous groups in relation to the composition of their classrooms, whereas students tended to form homogeneous groups with respect to gender and ethnicity and to a lesser extent achievement.
Abstract: Although small-group learning is an essential part of instruction in nearly all of today's elementary schools, little is known about how teachers group students. In the study reported here, observations of 30 fifth-grade teachers in a large urban school district revealed that the composition of groups for hands-on science instruction varied greatly, both among teachers and within classrooms. Generally, teachers tended to form heterogeneous groups in relation to the composition of their classrooms, whereas students tended to form homogeneous groups with respect to gender and ethnicity and to a lesser extent achievement. However, classroom composition (i.e., percentage minority or low achievers) severely constrained some teachers' grouping options, and these teachers often formed groups in ways that contradicted recommended practices. Teachers' stated grouping practices on the basis of student achievement did not always correspond to classroom observations. Further factors that teachers did not explicitly m...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors employed statistical procedures used in organizational psychology to evaluate whether measurements of school social environment showed group consensus and, further, whether relations between parent satisfaction and student enjoyment of classroom activities were related to school membership.
Abstract: In this study I employed statistical procedures used in organizational psychology to evaluate whether measurements of school social environment showed group consensus and, further, whether relations between school social environment and parent satisfaction and student enjoyment of classroom activities were related to school membership. Employing scales of school social environment, I obtained perceptions from 26,904 students and 33,153 parents of students who attended 122 elementary schools located in a large, suburban school district. Scale data were analyzed using several statistics that showed the extent of within-school and between-school agreement on the scales and covariation between Parent Overall Satisfaction and Student Enjoyment and the social environment scales. Scales that showed greatest within-school consensus for parents were School Safety and Parent Involvement, and for students, School Facilities, School Safety, School Staff Helpfulness, and Diversity of Friendships. The relation of Paren...
TL;DR: In this article, the capabilities of technology-such as calculation, imaging, networking, and portability-match capabilities of pedagogical approaches to a range of scientific approaches, such as inquiry-based science and dynamic modeling.
Abstract: In this article we match capabilities of technology-such as calculation, imaging, networking, and portability-to a range of pedagogical approaches-such as inquiry-based science and dynamic modeling We describe several diverse examples that show how the different technology capabilities have been used to support these different pedagogical approaches These examples include research demonstrations we have created at Apple Computer-Media Fusion, the Multimedia Bulletin Board-as well as software products that are generally available in the marketplace-the Visual Almanac, Kids Network The intent is to provide readers with a context in which to consider the technological opportunities that already are, or soon will be, available to science educators
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors provide a historical account of research and practices associated with science laboratories in precollege instruction. And they describe three social contexts of research on science laboratories: separation, interaction, and partnership.
Abstract: In this article I provide a historical account of research and practices associated with science laboratories in precollege instruction 3 social contexts of research on science laboratories are described In the separation context, each group concerned with science teaching and learning worked in isolation For example, psychologists studied the learner, educators studied the school, and natural scientists designed the curriculum In the interaction context, natural scientists typically worked with either classroom teachers or educators to investigate the science laboratory For instance, classroom teachers field-tested laboratory materials and provided feedback to natural scientists In the partnership context, all those concerned with science instruction worked together with respect for each other For example, experts in technology designed tools and incorporated findings from cognitive investigations to improve classroom effectiveness Research from each of these contexts contributed both findings an
TL;DR: The authors describe two experienced upper-elementary school teachers, Joe Scott and Karen Hill, who for the past 4 years have attempted to implement elements of educational reform in mathematics as part of a statewide effort in California.
Abstract: This case study describes 2 experienced upper-elementary school teachers-Joe Scott and Karen Hill-who for the past 4 years have attempted to implement elements of educational reform in mathematics as part of a statewide effort in California. This statewide effort, which began with the adoption of a curriculum framework similar to the one recommended by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, involved changes in textbooks, teacher in-service programs, and statewide assessment. The 2 teachers, not surprisingly, brought important strengths and weaknesses to this effort. This article, which draws on 5 years of interview and observational data, focuses on a complex factor that is both a strength and a weakness: Scott and Hill's attentiveness to learners' needs. Scott views learners' needs largely through the prism of a fixed set of curricular demands. In Hill's case, attentiveness to student needs means focusing on an equally hard and fast set of demands-mathematical ability-albeit originating from th...
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors traced the process of conceptual change in a young boy, my grandson, from the middle of kindergarten until the beginning of second grade, and described the sources of these ideas, the process by which he restructured his alternative conceptions and the instructional conditions that supported his conceptual change.
Abstract: In this case study I traced the process of conceptual change in a young boy, my grandson, from the middle of kindergarten until the beginning of second grade. Data included field notes of informal interactions and interviews with parents and teachers as well as information collected in 22 hour-long sessions. In these sessions, Christopher was interviewed and given instruction about ideas related to the shape of the earth and the causes of day and night and the seasons. In most sessions I read trade books to Christopher and accompanied them with models and demonstrations. At the conclusion of each session, Christopher drew and/or wrote in a journal. In this article I describe Christopher's ideas about the earth at the outset of the study, the sources of these ideas, the process by which he restructured his alternative conceptions, and the instructional conditions that supported his conceptual change. I also provide criteria for defining an alternative conception and suggest how conditions in Christopher's ...
TL;DR: The first implementation of CoZi in an urban southeastern school, findings regarding implementation of the integrated model, an overview of the expansion to 3 pilot schools in different types of communities, and plans for evaluation and wider dissemination are presented in this paper.
Abstract: In 1987, Edward Zigler conceptualized the School of the 21st Century, a child care and family-support model with 7 components linked to or based in public schools. In 1969, James Comer conceived of the School Development Program, which mobilizes adults in a school community to work together in planning a school program that promotes optimal student development. Independently, the School of the 21st Century and the School Development Program have been implemented in hundreds of U.S. schools. In 1992, a plan was developed at the Yale University Bush Center in Child Development and Social Policy to integrate the 2 models in a collaborative initiative termed CoZi. In this article, we present the background and description of the 2 models, the story of the first implementation of CoZi in an urban southeastern school, findings regarding implementation of the integrated model, an overview of the expansion to 3 pilot schools in different types of communities, and plans for evaluation and wider dissemination.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors used interviews with 20 persons (e.g., teachers, teacher educators, policy makers curriculum developers) to find key issues of potential support and opposition for "Science for All Americans" (SFAA), a project sponsored by the American Association for the Advancement of Science.
Abstract: Science education curriculum standards are in part a political process including conflicting philosophies, values, and priorities for what science knowledge is most worth knowing. In this article we specify some of these conflicts by using an example of "Science for All Americans" (SFAA), a project sponsored by the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Formed in 1848, the association is the world's largest federation of scientific and engineering societies and has over 140,000 members. We used interviews with 20 persons (e.g., teachers, teacher educators, policy makers curriculum developers) to find key issues of potential support and opposition. Interest groups concerned with these controversial issues are examined, as well as the crucial actors and institutions for policy approval at the state and local levels. Our focus is on formal policy making rather than classroom implementation. We conclude that political coalitions supporting SFAA will require a great deal of political analysis and...
TL;DR: This paper examined special education as an effort by schools to organize education for students with mild disabilities and found that no single feature, structure, or organization of school environment consistently indicated a school's relative standing or its relative effectiveness based on student performance.
Abstract: Historically, special education research has focused on placement and service-delivery options rather than on the broader school environment. In this study, we examined special education as an effort by schools to organize education for students with mild disabilities. To investigate which variations in how schools organize instruction account for their relative effectiveness, we selected 6 schools representing a range of effectiveness based on measures of academic performance, self-esteem, and school adjustment of students with mild disabilities. We then established overall school environment ratings based on data from observations and student and teacher interviews. The findings indicated that no single feature, structure, or organization of school environment consistently indicated a school's relative standing or its relative effectiveness based on student performance. This article describes how the case study schools were organized to educate students with mild disabilities, what kind of educational e...
TL;DR: This article used a case study of an urban elementary school to examine connections between educational research and practice at the school level, and found that the key role of discourse conventions in encouraging or discouraging links between education research and research practice at school level.
Abstract: In this article I use a case study of an urban elementary school to examine connections between educational research and practice at the school level. Beginning in the late 1980s, members of this school tried to restructure their curriculum, instruction, student and teacher grouping, and relationships with parents and neighborhood communities. Associated with this restructuring, school members participated in several multischool reform initiatives. They also developed new forms of group discourse, including a "protocol" process that supported generic features of educational research. Through these discourse innovations, school members were able to link research and practice in ways that are difficult to realize within discipline-based research, institutional research, or teacher research. A comparison of the protocol process with these other research orientations reveals the key role of discourse conventions in encouraging or discouraging links between educational research and practice at the school level.