Showing papers in "Environment and Planning A in 1983"
TL;DR: Members of the family of spatial-interaction models commonly referred to as gravity models are shown to be misspecified and an undesirable ‘spatial-structure effect’ in estimated distance-decay parameters is examined.
Abstract: Members of the family of spatial-interaction models commonly referred to as gravity models are shown to be misspecified. One result of this misspecification is the occurrence of an undesirable "spatial-structure effect" in estimated distance-decay parameters and this effect is examined in detail. An alternative set of spatial-interaction models is formulated from which more accurate predictions of interactions and more accurate parameter estimates can be obtained. These new interaction models are termed competing destinations models, and estimated distance-decay parameters obtained in their calibration are shown to have a purely behavioural interpretation. The implications of gravity-model misspecification are discussed. (Author/TRRL)
504 citations
TL;DR: The concept of life-style is becoming a major differentiating trait between population groups substituting for economic and social classes as mentioned in this paper, and it is used in the context of travel demand models.
Abstract: The concept of life-style is becoming a major differentiating trait between population groups substituting for economic and social classes.This paper describes the utilization of the concept of life-style in the context of travel demand models. Life-style is defined as a pattern of behavior under constrained resources which conforms to the orientations an individual has toward three major ‘life decisions' he or she must make: (a) formation of a household (of any type), (b) participation in the labor force, and (c) orientation toward leisure.A population is classified into life-style groups based on similarity in a multivariate space. Socioeconomic and demographic variables define that space, and emphasis is put on variables which are indicative of emerging new life-styles (for example, the relative contribution of the female spouse to the household income). Cluster analysis is employed to identify the life-style groups.Models for the combinations of choice of mode and destination for shopping trips are es...
226 citations
TL;DR: It is shown that, if competition exists between destinations or, alternatively, if agglomeration effects are present, the gravity model is misspecified and estimated distance-decay parameters obtained from the model are related to spatial structure.
Abstract: Aspects of destination choice which concern relationships between destinations are explored in the context of a production-constrained gravity model. It is shown that, if competition exists between destinations or, alternatively, if agglomeration effects are present, the gravity model is misspecified and estimated distance-decay parameters obtained from the model are related to spatial structure.
155 citations
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TL;DR: In this article, the desirability and possibility of fashioning a concept of spatial justice from notions of social justice and territorial social justice is discussed, and the possibility of combining social justice with spatial justice is explored.
Abstract: This essay reflects on the desirability and possibility of fashioning a concept of spatial justice from notions of social justice and territorial social justice. The contested meaning, rival formul...
106 citations
TL;DR: It is shown that the Newton—Raphson technique can be implemented for finding the optimal Lagrange multipliers for these models of urban location, destination, mode, and route choice.
Abstract: A unified approach to deriving models of urban location, destination, mode, and route choice is illustrated, and an algorithm based on Evans's approach and the Lagrange multiplier procedure is proposed. By examining derivatives of the Lagrangian function, we show that the Newton—Raphson technique can be implemented for finding the optimal Lagrange multipliers for these models. Procedures for identifying values of generalized cost-function coefficients are studied.
104 citations
TL;DR: The role of the voluntary sector service provision in local communities has been largely overlooked, but is increasingly critical to the quality of urban life as discussed by the authors, and an exploratory analysis is presented in this paper.
Abstract: The role of voluntary sector service provision in local communities has been largely overlooked, but is increasingly critical to the quality of urban life This paper provides an exploratory analys
97 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examine the forces that affect growth, location, and distribution in the service sector and examine the specific context of location choices made by offices of multinational enterprises (MNEs).
Abstract: The forces that affect growth, location, and distribution in the service sector will have elements in common with those at work in manufacturing, but equally will exhibit certain unique features. This paper examines such forces in the specific context of location choices made by offices of multinational enterprises (MNEs). Such enterprises emerge in response to particular market imperfections and to exploit particular ‘ownership specific’ advantages. The nature of such ownership specific advantages is discussed with specific reference to MNE office location, and tested using data drawn from a survey of European offices of mainly US-based MNEs. It is shown that a distinction must be drawn between offices that provide a service for final consumption and those that provide a mainly coordinating role. The former types of office are shown to be heavily market oriented and to act in ways consistent with theory. The latter types of office are more complex, but again locate in ways consistent with theory; in part...
81 citations
TL;DR: Results of a series of experiments in which the input—output structure of the State of Washington is approximated from similar data for the nation, which appears promising, especially when used in combination with survey estimates of regional value added and/or exports.
Abstract: In this paper the authors present results of a series of experiments in which the input—output structure of the State of Washington (as reflected in 1972 survey-based input—output tables) is approximated from similar data for the nation (as given in the 1967 survey-based US tables). Variants of two kinds of nonsurvey approaches are employed. These are purely-nonsurvey methods (including, for example, adjustments according to simple location quotient measures) and partial-survey techniques (such as the RAS method). Comparisons between nonsurvey results and the Washington data are made on the basis both of regional coefficient matrices and of their Leontief inverses. Comparisons are also made with the results of several other studies that have utilized similar nonsurvey approaches. Certain procedures appear promising, especially when used in combination with survey estimates of regional value added and/or exports.
61 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a simple theoretical model of the accelerator type is proposed to explain some observed characteristics of the office-development cycle in Britain, including the long production period between new building orders and completions, which is incorporated into an accelerator model, yielding a secondorder difference equation which generates cyclical fluctuations around an equilibrium growth path.
Abstract: The author proposes a simple theoretical model of the accelerator type which helps to explain some observed characteristics of the pronounced office-development cycle in Britain. The British economy is currently experiencing its third major postwar cycle, the previous peaks of development activity having occurred in the early 1960s and early 1970s, the latter during the famous ‘property boom’. The author begins with a summary guide to the literature on building cycles, examining the various exogenous factors which have been proposed to explain these cycles and identifying a crucial endogenous causal factor, which is the long production period between new building orders and completions. This delay is incorporated into an accelerator model of the development process, yielding a second-order difference equation which generates cyclical fluctuations around an equilibrium growth path. The behaviour of the model is then tested using typical values of the main parameters, and compared with the results of previo...
60 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors considered urban open spaces as amenity resources or local public goods and incorporated them into neoclassical urban land-use theory to determine an efficient distribution of open space.
Abstract: Urban open spaces such as parks, open squares, parkways, etc, are considered as amenity resources or local public goods and incorporated into neoclassical urban land-use theory. Models characterizing Pareto efficient allocations and competitive equilibrium allocations with open space are presented. The ‘fiscal profitability principle’ suggested by Margolis is confirmed to be applicable to determine an efficient distribution of open space. Many interesting results are established. For example, if utility function is Cobb-Douglas or log-linear, then rich will locate farther away from poor, irrespective of the distribution of open space; the optimal density distribution of open space is uniform if the spillover effects of open space are neglected, and it is decreasing with the distance from the CBD when the spillover effects of open space are taken into account.
57 citations
TL;DR: In this article, it is argued that external control is an important feature of the business-service sector, and that the organisational structure of multisite service firms influences the supply of business services.
Abstract: Business-service activities are poorly represented in provincial areas of the British economy, and this acts as a constraint on the economic growth of these locations. This argument is developed in a survey investigation of business-service offices in the conurbations of Manchester, Leeds, and Birmingham. It is argued that external control is an important feature of the business-service sector, and that the organisational structure of multisite service firms influences the supply of business services. The importance of indigenous employment growth and industrial movement in provincial cities is examined. It is suggested that some business services generate regional exports, and should therefore, be given regional policy support.
TL;DR: In this article, a model of why people do not move between local labor markets is developed by means of a set of concepts derived from the job search and contracts literature, and emphasis is placed on how the environment, in which individuals behave, determines outcomes.
Abstract: A model of why people do not move between local labor markets is developed by means of a set of concepts derived from the job search and contracts literature. Emphasis is placed on how the environment, in which individuals behave, determines outcomes. It is argued that individuals act rationally, but that in a world of inequality rational behavior can reinforce disequilibrium and the perpetuation of spatial-economic inequality. A hypothetical example of two local labor markets is used to illustrate our argument.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined some of the factors which influence the creation of small businesses and the development of entrepreneurship in Northern Ireland and gave particular attention to the investigation of the macroeconomic constraints on the process of new-business formation, which influenced the decision of individuals to establish businesses themselves.
Abstract: This paper examines some of the factors which influence the creation of small businesses and the development of entrepreneurship in Northern Ireland. Particular attention is given to the investigation of the macroeconomic constraints on the process of new-business formation, which influence the decision of individuals to establish businesses themselves. Data on company registrations in Northern Ireland over the period 1951–1980 give some support to the proposition that new-business formation is a response to two sets of factors, ‘push’ factors and ‘pull’ factors. Push factors encourage an individual to leave paid employment (or more rarely unemployment) to establish his own business, and it is argued that the threat of unemployment is a significant factor in this decision. Pull factors operate in the opposite manner, making more attractive the opportunities and benefits of self-employment. Of particular interest in this respect is the apparent importance of upturns, or perceived upturns, in economic activ...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors proposed a model to explain how particular spatial distributions of trip destinations might arise as manifestations of the accessibility benefits and travel costs associated with a housing location, and the model implies a housing density function in a monocentric urban area which is negative exponential.
Abstract: The proposed model attempts to explain how particular spatial distributions of trip destinations might arise as manifestations of the accessibility benefits and travel costs associated with a housing location. The trip distributions are elliptical, being expressed as bivariate normal distributions. The parameters of these distributions are shown to be related to the parameters of an assumed density function for activity sites (such as jobs and shops) and to travel speeds. The model implies a housing density function in a monocentric urban area which is negative exponential. For abstract of part 2 see TRIS no. 379880. (Author/TRRL)
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors derive a spatial-interaction model in which places are related to each other through a set of simultaneous linear equations and the associated Lagrangians can be interpreted as pushes and pulls, or as shadow prices.
Abstract: Elementary geometric assumptions are used to derive a spatial-interaction model in which places are related to each other through a set of simultaneous linear equations. The system has simple properties with respect to aggregation and turnover, yet incorporates spatial competition, adjacency, and effects of geographic shadowing. The objective function satisfied by the model reduces congestion and minimizes the per capita work; solves a quadratic transportation-problem and fulfils in-sum and out-sum constraints. The associated Lagrangians can be interpreted as pushes and pulls, or as shadow prices. A spatially continuous version of the model consists of coupled elliptical partial differential equations with Neumann boundary conditions, solvable by numerical methods. With migration data from the United States of America the model yields an amazingly good fit, better than existing models and with fewer free parameters. Inversion of the model yields an estimate of distances between regions. In-movement rates ...
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors developed an equilibrium model of office location, which explicitly considers the source of agglomeration economies and which sees firm location and contact patterns as jointly and endogenously determined.
Abstract: In this paper, we develop an equilibrium model of office location, which explicitly considers the source of agglomeration economies and which sees firm location and contact patterns as jointly and endogenously determined. We solve the model explicitly for contact-benefit, facility-cost, and transport-cost functions representative of medium-sized US cities. The resulting rent functions are concave rather than convex as they are in most models of industrial and residential location. The source of the concavity is that firms make contacts throughout the central business district (CBD). To determine the role of agglomeration economies associated with interfirm contacts, we alter the contact-benefit function, the transport-cost function and the size of the CBD. We find that agglomeration economies have a strong effect on location and, indeed, are often sufficiently strong to produce counterintuitive results. For example, an increase in transport costs causes a decrease rather than an increase in transport expe...
TL;DR: The research presented here is a continuation of the work published in a previous issue of this journal, to relate travel patterns and urban structure using continuous spatial distributions and urban-economic concepts of residential location choice.
Abstract: The research presented here is a continuation of the work published in a previous issue of this journal. The overall objective was to relate travel patterns and urban structure using continuous spatial distributions and urban-economic concepts of residential location choice. In the present paper, model hypotheses are tested using data from a transportation planning study in Washington.
TL;DR: In this paper, a catastrophe-theory-like mechanism was proposed to explain the relatively sudden transition from corner-shop retailing to a supermarket system in Nottingham from 1956 to 1979.
Abstract: It was proposed in an earlier paper that a catastrophe-theory-like mechanism might explain the relatively sudden transition from corner-shop retailing to a supermarket system. In this paper, some extensions of this mechanism and some alternatives are presented; but most importantly the first steps are taken in relating these theoretical explorations to empirical data. We consider change in Nottingham from 1956 to 1979.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigated the effect of spatial aggregation in connected, several-region input-output models and found that spatial aggregation can increase the error introduced into a multiregional input output model through aggregation of regions.
Abstract: This study continues the investigations into effects of spatial aggregation in connected, several-region input-output models that were initially reported upon in Miller and Blair (1980; 1981) for an interregional input-output model. In the present paper our interest is in the error that is introduced into a multiregional input-output model through aggregation of regions. As in the earlier paper, we investigate the question by means of both hypothetical and real data. In the present study, these are (1) randomly generated multiregional data incorporating varying degrees of regional linkage and (2) actual 1963 US multiregional data. To allow some comparison with the interregional experiments, the data for the random experiments in the present paper are derived from our original randomly generated interregional data. The same levels of spatial interconnectedness as in the interregional experiments are also used here, and the same measures of aggregation error are employed. As in the interregional case, we co...
TL;DR: In this article, the performance of six alternative measures of input-output model interconnectedness was tested on a set of fourteen empirical models for Australia, for the State of Queensland, and for subregions within Queensland.
Abstract: The performance of six alternative measures of input-output model interconnectedness was tested on a set of fourteen empirical models for Australia, for the State of Queensland, and for subregions within Queensland. Such measures of interconnectedness could be analytically useful, along with the input-output models themselves, as descriptions of the nature of the modeled economies, as aids in model estimation, and perhaps as indications of the level of economic development. Since there is no generally accepted interconnectedness measure, the six tested measures could be judged only on their consistency of behavior and on the validity of their underlying logic. Accounting conventions and model aggregation both affected most of the measures. The results suggest that mean intermediate coefficient total per sector is the most generally useful interconnectedness measure.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present a model of residential mobility to investigate the relationship between the socioeconomic characteristics of a household and housing dissatisfaction. And they extend the microeconomic model by incorporating the hedonic theory of housing prices, which provides a statistically significant improvement in fit over existing approaches.
Abstract: This paper presents a model of residential mobility to investigate the relationship between the socioeconomic characteristics of a household and housing dissatisfaction. The paper extends the microeconomic model of residential migration by incorporating the hedonic theory of housing prices. The proposed model is estimated by logistic regression with interaction terms, with data from a national longitudinal survey. It is shown that the model provides a statistically significant improvement in fit over existing approaches.
TL;DR: The paper shows how two approaches to the analysis of age and sex specific interarea migration in England and Wales have been used to develop complementary classifications from which potentially valuable criteria for migration analysis can emerge.
Abstract: In this paper [the authors] describe the development and application of two approaches to the analysis of age and sex specific interarea migration. The data relate to local authority areas in England and Wales. These approaches are developments of established migration profile-fitting and cluster analytic methods. The paper shows how these methods have been used to develop complementary classifications from which potentially valuable criteria for migration analysis can emerge. The work described is part of a wider project concerned with the development of methods to improve the official estimation of internal migration in England in the context of local area population forecasting. (EXCERPT)
TL;DR: In this paper, the main defects are: first, a failure to assess amenity and conservation losses; second, use of prices that contain a substantial element of income transfer which is not netted out; third, a failed to properly calculate the rate of land conversion; fourth, the project appraisal period is arbitrarily chosen or treated as a variable; fifth, the use of theoretical rather than expected agricultural yields; sixth, the level of flood protection aimed at is too high for the stated objective; and, last, anticipated flood losses are not deducted.
Abstract: The wetland areas of England are under imminent threat of drainage for agricultural improvement. The immediate cause is the local drainage surveys produced under the Water Act 1973. Problems identified in these surveys are subjected to cost-benefit appraisal. Examination of a selection shows that these appraisals are technically defective and result in an overstatement of the benefits and in an overinvestment in land drainage. The main defects are: first, a failure to assess amenity and conservation losses; second, use of prices that contain a substantial element of income transfer which is not netted out; third, a failure to properly calculate the rate of land conversion—a crucial variable; fourth, the project appraisal period is arbitrarily chosen or treated as a variable; fifth, the use of theoretical rather than expected agricultural yields; sixth, the level of flood protection aimed at is too high for the stated objective; and, last, anticipated flood losses are not deducted.
TL;DR: The International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis initiated a study of migration and population distribution patterns in its seventeen member nations as mentioned in this paper, where the authors described the organization of the study, discussed the data bases used, evaluate the main results obtained, and reviewed some of the methodological research that has been generated by the study.
Abstract: In 1976, the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis initiated a study of migration and population distribution patterns in its seventeen member nations. In each country, the analysis was carried out by national scholars using techniques of multiregional demography. In this paper the authors describe the organization of the study, discuss the data bases used, evaluate the main results obtained, and review some of the methodological research that has been generated by the study. Among the author's conclusions are recommendations for researchers wishing to carry out a multiregional demographic analysis.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors explored some possible sources of variation in the role of business services in local economies with particular reference to the location and control of these services and found that non-indigenous firms are significantly more likely to set up new branches or to relocate existing ones.
Abstract: There are only a few studies of business service activities and most have concentrated on the behaviour of these activities in large cities. By taking a wider cross section of urban areas, this study explores some possible sources of variation in the role of business services in local economies with particular reference to the location and control of these services. Low-growth cities with a large proportion of their business services under external control show a limited amount of new-firm formation since indigenous firms are outnumbered by about two to one. Nonindigenous firms are significantly more likely to set up new branches or to relocate existing ones. The ratio of indigenous to nonindigenous business services in each urban area is significant for the location, status, function, and other changes reported by establishments. Many of these changes are a response to market adjustment or a need to ‘colonize’ new areas. The types of change, particularly of location, are also significantly related to off...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present an examination of filter-down theory in relation to the location and technological sophistication of manufacturing establishments within the UK pharmaceutical industry and show that there is no significant technological bias in favour of firms or plants located in larger settlements, in more urbanized areas, or within more centrally located regions.
Abstract: This paper presents an examination of filter-down theory in relation to the location and technological sophistication of manufacturing establishments within the UK pharmaceutical industry. By means of data drawn from a survey of eighty-three pharmaceutical manufacturing companies, the paper considers the technological sophistication both of firms and of plants according to their location as defined by settlement size, degree of urbanization, and their broader centre-periphery regional setting. Given the overall location of the UK pharmaceutical industry, it is shown that there is no significant technological bias in favour of firms or plants located in larger settlements, in more urbanized areas, or within more centrally located regions. In part this result was associated with the decentralized location of manufacturing units controlled by large technologically advanced corporate organizations. The survey data also revealed that on an intracorporate basis there was no evidence that more distant plants, in...
TL;DR: In this paper, a study is made of the case where there are two shopping and two residential zones, and a commonly used urban retail model is shown always to have a positive solution, a solution that is not always unique.
Abstract: A commonly used urban retail model is shown always to have a positive solution, a solution that is not always unique In particular, a study is made of the case where there are two shopping and two residential zones
TL;DR: Clark et al. as mentioned in this paper explored cyclical sensitivity in employment, wages, and hours worked with reference to three industries and eleven US cities over the period of 1972-1980, and found that there are significant interregional variations in these patterns within the same industry.
Abstract: . Cyclical sensitivity in employment, wages, and hours worked are explored with reference to three industries and eleven US cities over the period 1972-1980. Conventional neoclassical discrete-exchange models of the labor market are shown to be inadequate because of marked rigidities in the patterns of short-run adjustment. Money wages are very stable, being dominated by a long-run trend, and firms tend to adjust hours worked and only then employment in the short run. There are, however, significant interregional variations in these patterns within the same industry. Spectral analysis and tests for periodicities in the patterns of residuals derived from trend-line estimates of money wages confirm a supposition that urban Phillips curves do not exist. The evidence supports the implicit notion of contract theory that continuous employer-worker relationships exist over the business cycle. The question of how useful, in general, this theory might be is left open for the present. 1 Introduction Imagine a firm is faced with a sudden and unanticipated decline in demand for its output. How is it likely to respond? Neoclassical models, based upon perfect competitive assumptions, suggest two possibilities. First, if the market price falls quickly enough, a compensating increase in demand could be induced via the bargain prices faced by consumers. Second, if prices do not adjust to fully compensate declining demand, or if there is a lag in response, the firm would be forced to reduce output and to lay off excess labor. As a consequence, with declining demand for labor relative to supply, wages should also fall. Only a minor modification to this second answer is required if money wages are sticky downwards. Phillips (1958), argued that although wages do not decline absolutely, their rate of increase does. What of workers' responses in this situation? Neoclassical models emphasize real wages as a key behavioral criterion. With declining commodity prices, a commensurate decline in money wages would be of little relevance because real wages would be maintained. A step further in this line of reasoning is to suggest that money wages vary according to workers' expectations of likely changes in prices (Grossman, 1980). Even if money wages are sticky downwards, neoclassical theory still implies a great deal of wage-rate inflation volatility over the short run. Studies of the dynamics of local labor markets have depended to a large extent on these types of propositions (Clark, 1980). In these analyses, short-run patterns of employment are typically linked to industry-specific demand patterns and the location of those industries, and local wage inflation models typically depend upon the Phillips curve and its implied neoclassical quantity and price adjustment mechanisms (Clark, 1981c). Essentially, the local labor market has been treated just like any other commodity market, albeit with the appropriate cautions regarding the significance of flexible versus fixed-price arrangements. Workers are not simply commodities. They can, and often do, enter into implicit and explicit contractual agreements with employers. Rather than supply and demand being the dominant means of setting wages, union and collective wage bargaining are key institutional characteristics of the labor market (Ross, 1948). In recent years Baily (1976) and Azariades (1975) have also shown that implicit contracts can
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examine the apparent locational conservatism of office activities in the existing core and argue that in terms of overall systems efficiency the rationale for the decentralization strategy for Toronto was incomplete and that existing data on the frequencies of face-to-face contact indicated that a substantial increase in the difference between core and suburban rents was necessary to induce a significant removal of office activity from the central area.
Abstract: Within the context of recent attempts by Toronto to restrict office development in its downtown, the author examines, from several perspectives, the apparent locational conservatism of office activities in the existing core. He begins by arguing that in terms of overall systems efficiency the rationale for the decentralization strategy for Toronto was incomplete and that existing data on the frequencies of face-to-face contact indicated that a substantial increase in the difference between core and suburban rents was necessary to induce a significant removal of office activities from the central area. The subsequent increase in this difference beyond the theoretical level where out-migration should occur suggests the importance of other variables besides those traditionally measured by information linkage studies. Neglected among these factors is the quality of information, reflecting the ability to ‘shop’ among alternative information sources, which in a fundamental sense depends on accessibility. It is ...
TL;DR: The role of beliefs, attitudes, social influence, and intentions as predictors of residential energy conservation behavior was explored in the context of Fishbein and Ajzen's theory of reasoned action as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: The role of beliefs, attitudes, social influence, and intentions as predictors of residential energy conservation behaviour is explored in the context of Fishbein and Ajzen's theory of reasoned action. Empirical analysis of survey data from Decatur, Illinois provides support for the theory and insight into barriers to energy conservation.