Showing papers in "Immunopharmacology and Immunotoxicology in 2021"
TL;DR: If the monoclonal antibody administered by us does not inhibit the immune response for the β-CoV and inhibits uncontrolled-adaptive/hyperimmune responses (also called cytokine storm) on endothelium level, then it may cause severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19).
Abstract: The SARS-CoV-2 is a β-CoV, which is enveloped by non-segmented positive-stranded RNA virus. When β-CoV infects the respiratory tract, it can cause mild and/or severe acute respiratory syndrome (SAR...
26 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors attempted to determine the mechanisms of luteolin in rhinitis in a rat model using ovalbumi mice and found that it has an anti-allergic effect but its mechanism is not clear.
Abstract: Luteolin has an anti-allergic effect but its mechanism is not clear. This study attempted to determine the mechanisms of luteolin in rhinitis.Allergic rhinitis rat model was established by ovalbumi...
24 citations
TL;DR: Tranilast as discussed by the authors is a drug that can act as an effective anti-chemotactic factor on controlling inflammation, and thus, it can possibly help the improvement of the acute form of COVID-19 by inhibiting some key inflammationassociated transcription factors such as NF-κB and impeding NLRP3 inflammasome.
Abstract: SARS-CoV-2 is a type of beta-CoV that develops acute pneumonia, which is an inflammatory condition. A cytokine storm has been recognized as one of the leading causes of death in patients with COVID-19. ALI and ARDS along with multiple organ failure have also been presented as the consequences of acute inflammation and cytokine storm. It has been previously confirmed that SARS-CoV, as another member of the beta-CoV family, activates NLRP3 inflammasome and consequently develops acute inflammation in a variety of ways through having complex interactions with the host immune system using structural and nonstructural proteins. Numerous studies conducted on Tranilast have further demonstrated that the given drug can act as an effective anti-chemotactic factor on controlling inflammation, and thus, it can possibly help the improvement of the acute form of COVID-19 by inhibiting some key inflammation-associated transcription factors such as NF-κB and impeding NLRP3 inflammasome. Several studies have comparably revealed the direct effect of this drug on the prevention of inappropriate tissue's remodeling; inhibition of neutrophils, IL-5, and eosinophils; repression of inflammatory cell infiltration into inflammation site; restriction of factors involved in acute airway inflammation like IL-33; and suppression of cytokine IL-13, which increase mucosal secretions. Therefore, Tranilast may be considered as a potential treatment for patients with the acute form of COVID-19 along with other drugs.
22 citations
TL;DR: The use of immunosuppressants, which are particularly useful and have fewer side effects, has been shown to be beneficial in transplantation as mentioned in this paper, but their use is limited in the transplantation period.
Abstract: Immunosuppressive drugs used in the transplantation period are generally defined as induction and maintenance therapy. The use of immunosuppressants, which are particularly useful and have fewer si...
20 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors provide a comprehensive description of the mechanisms of the pleotropic effects of statins, relevant pre-clinical and clinical data pertinent to their role in infections and acute lung injury, the possible cardiovascular benefits of statin in COVID-19, and the implications of the therapeutic potential of the statins in CoV-19 disease.
Abstract: The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) that causes the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has infected millions of individuals and has claimed hundreds of thousands of human lives worldwide. Patients with underlying cardiovascular conditions are at high risk for SARS-CoV-2 infection, and COVID-19 patients have high incidence of cardiovascular complications such as acute cardiac injury, arrhythmias, heart failure, and thromboembolism. The disease has no approved proven effective therapy and hence repurposing of existing approved drugs has been considered as the fastest treatment approach. Statins have been shown to exhibit lipid lowering dependent and independent cardiovascular protective effects as well as favorable effects in various other pathophysiological states. These beneficial properties of statins are a result of their multiple pleotropic effects that include, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, antithrombotic and antimicrobial properties. In this review, we provide a comprehensive description of the mechanisms of the pleotropic effects of statins, the relevant pre-clinical and clinical data pertinent to their role in infections and acute lung injury, the possible cardiovascular benefits of statins in COVID-19, and the implications of the therapeutic potential of statins in COVID-19 disease. We conclude with the rationale for conducting randomized controlled trials of statins in COVID-19 disease.
19 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the role of quercetin in non-small cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC) and the biological outcomes using transfection experiments was determined.
Abstract: To determine the role of quercetin in non-small cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC) and the biological outcomes using transfection experiments.Real-time reverse transcription-PCR and data collection were p...
19 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors reviewed the rationale, clinical evidence, and future perspectives of telitacicept for the treatment of autoimmune disease and proposed a novel recombinant fusion protein of both the ligand-binding domain of the TACI receptor and the Fc component of human IgG, which is a BLyS/APRIL dual inhibitor.
Abstract: The pathogenic roles for B cells in autoimmunity include produce pathogenic autoantibodies and modulate immune responses via the production of cytokines and chemokines. The B lymphocyte stimulator BLyS (also known as B-cell-activating factor, BAFF) and APRIL (a proliferation-inducing ligand) are critical factors in the maintenance of the B-cell pool and humoral immunity, namely BLyS modulates the differentiation and maturation of immature B cell, while APRIL modulates the function and survival of long-lived plasma cell, which plays a prominent role in the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases. Telitacicept is a novel recombinant fusion protein of both the ligand-binding domain of the TACI receptor and the Fc component of human IgG and which is a BLyS/APRIL dual inhibitor. Moreover, telitacicept was developed by Remegen Co., Ltd. in China and is approved to treat systemic lupus erythematosus in China. We review the rationale, clinical evidence, and future perspectives of telitacicept for the treatment of autoimmune disease.HighlightThe B lymphocyte stimulator BLyS (also known as B-cell-activating factor, BAFF) and APRIL (a proliferation-inducing ligand), members of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) family, and which are critical factors in the maintenance of the B-cell pool and humoral immunity.BAFF and APRIL are implicated in the pathogenesis of several human autoimmune diseases with autoreactive B-cell involvement, and targeting both is beneficial for the treatment of autoimmune diseases.Telitacicept is a novel recombinant fusion protein of both the ligand-binding domain of the TACI receptor and the Fc component of human IgG, as a BLyS/APRIL dual inhibitor and which has been approved by National Medical Products Administration (MNPA) for the treatment of patients with SLE in China.With more clinical trials underway, telitacicept may also be approved for the treatment of other autoimmune diseases in the future.
17 citations
TL;DR: The complex pathological mechanism behind AD etiology is epidermal barrier destruction resulting in the lack of filaggrin protein that can induce inflammation and T-cell infiltration.
Abstract: Atopic dermatitis (AD) is the long-lasting chronic inflammatory skin condition associated with cutaneous hyper-reactivity and triggered by environmental factors. The attributes of AD include dry skin, pruritus, lichenification and frequent eczematous abrasions. This has a strong heritable aspect and typically occurs with asthma and allergic rhinitis. The complex pathological mechanism behind AD etiology is epidermal barrier destruction resulting in the lack of filaggrin protein that can induce inflammation and T-cell infiltration. T-helper 2 cell-mediated pathways also bear the responsibility of damage to the epidermal barrier. Certain causative factors for AD include microbial imbalance of skin microbiota, immunoglobulin-E-induced sensitization and neuro-inflammation. Numerous beneficial topical and oral treatments have been available to patients and there are even more drugs in the pipeline for the treatment of AD. Topical moisturizers, corticosteroids, anti-inflammatory agents such as calcineurin inhibitors, phototherapy, cAMP-specific 3, 5 half-cyclic phosphodiesterase 4 inhibitors and systemic immunosuppressants are widely available for AD treatments. Different positions and pathways inside the immune system including JAK-STAT, phosphodiesterase 4, aryl hydrocarbon receptor and T-helper 2 cytokines are targeted by above-mentioned drug treatments. Instead of the severe side effects of topical steroids and oral antihistamines, herbal plants and their derived phytoconstituents are commonly used for the treatment of AD. A clear understanding of AD's cellular and molecular pathogenesis through substantial advancement in genetics, skin immunology and psychological factors resulted in advancement of AD management. Therefore, the review highlights the recent advancements in the understanding of clinical features, etiology, pathogenesis, treatment and management and non-adherence to AD treatment.
16 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the impact of indomethacin (IND) on inflammasome as a key player of neuroinflammation was investigated in rats with Alzheimer's disease.
Abstract: Objective: Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) exposure might be considerably associated with a decreased risk of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Therefore, we conducted an experiment to investigate the impact of indomethacin (IND) on inflammasome as a key player of neuroinflammation.Methods: The Alzheimer's-like condition was induced by streptozotocin (STZ) in rats. IND was injected intraperitoneally 1 d prior to STZ administration and resumed with 2 d interval up to 60 d. Morris water maze (MWM) was utilized to assess learning and memory. The expression level of genes that contribute to the inflammasome pathway was measured using real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). To authenticate the obtained outcomes, immunostaining for caspase-1, interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and phosphorylated tau (p-Tau) protein was conducted.Results: Behavioral experiments indicated that IND treatment was able to improve learning and memory performance (p<.05). A significant decrease in C-terminal caspase recruitment domain [CARD] domain-containing protein 4 (NLRC4), nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain [NOD]-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3), IL-1β, and apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing CARD (ASC) mRNA expression was recorded in IND administered group compared with the STZ group (p<.05). Furthermore, expression levels of IL-18 and caspase-1 in the hippocampus of IND-treated group tended to decrease. Immunostaining evaluations showed that few positive cells for caspase-1, IL-1β, and p-Tau protein in IND treated animals, whereas the number of positive cells was considerably increased in STZ treated animals (p<.05).Conclusion: It could be deduced that IND improves neuroinflammation and memory impairment in AD through decreasing IL-1β and caspase-1 that are associated with suppression of NLRC4 and NLRP3 inflammasome genes. This holds the potential to introduce valuable targets in the field for successful combat against AD.
14 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a systematic literature search with no language restriction was performed in electronic databases and pre-print repositories to identify eligible studies published up to 29 June 2021, and the outcomes of interest were hospital admission and all-cause mortality.
Abstract: AIM: Several randomized trials have evaluated the effect of neutralizing monoclonal antibodies on the risk of hospital admission and risk of mortality in patients with COVID-19. We aimed to summarize the overall evidence in the form of a systematic review and meta-analysis. METHODS: A systematic literature search with no language restriction was performed in electronic databases and preprint repositories to identify eligible studies published up to 29 June 2021. The outcomes of interest were hospital admission and all-cause mortality. A random-effects model was used to estimate the pooled odds ratio (OR) for outcomes of interest with the use of neutralizing monoclonal antibodies relative to nonuse of neutralizing monoclonal antibodies, at 95% confidence intervals (CI). RESULTS: Our systematic literature search identified nine randomized controlled trials. Three trials had an overall low risk of bias, while four trials had some concerns in the overall risk of bias. The meta-analysis revealed no statistically significant difference in the odds of mortality (pooled OR = 0.69; 95% CI 0.33-1.47), but a statistically significant reduction in the odds of hospital admission (pooled OR = 0.29; 95% CI 0.21-0.42), with the administration of a neutralizing monoclonal antibody among patients with COVID-19, relative to non-administration of a neutralizing monoclonal antibody, at the current sample size. CONCLUSION: The reduced risk of hospital admission with neutralizing monoclonal antibodies use suggests that the timing of neutralizing antibodies administration is key in preventing hospital admission and, ultimately, death. Future randomized trials should aim to determine if the clinical outcomes with neutralizing monoclonal antibodies differ based on serostatus.
14 citations
TL;DR: Astragaloside IV (AS-IV) was reported to exert anti-cancer function in many cancers, but its actions in gastric cancer (GC) remain unclear as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: Astragaloside IV (AS-IV) was reported to exert anti-cancer function in many cancers, but its actions in gastric cancer (GC) remain unclear. In the present study, we tried to elaborate the underlyin...
TL;DR: In this paper, there is an urgent need of effective drug/formulation to speed up the healing process in diabetic wounds, and quercetin has accelerated the healing of nondiabetic wound.
Abstract: Purpose: There is an urgent need of effective drug/formulation to speed up the healing process in diabetic wounds. In our earlier studies, quercetin has accelerated the healing of nondiabetic wound...
TL;DR: In this article, the effects of dexmedetomidine (DEX) on miR-205-5p/HMGB1 axis in cerebral ischemic/reperfusion (I/R) injury were investigated.
Abstract: To investigate effects of dexmedetomidine (DEX) on miR-205-5p/HMGB1 axis in cerebral ischemic/reperfusion (I/R) injury.Both in vivo I/R rat model and in vitro hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R) cell model...
TL;DR: In this article, the function of bone marrow (BM)-MSC-derived exosomes in sepsis-induced myocardial injury and the molecular mechanism were revealed.
Abstract: Background Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and their derived exosomes have shown potentials in the control of myocardial dysfunction. This study aimed to reveal the function of bone marrow (BM)-MSC-derived exosomes in sepsis-induced myocardial injury and the molecular mechanism. Methods BM-MSC-derived exosomes were obtained and identified. A mouse model with sepsis was induced by cecalligation puncture (CLP) and treated with exosomes. The myocardial function of mice, the production of creatine kinase MB (CK-MB) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) in serum, the phosphorylation of a key myocardial contractility-related protein phospholamban (PLB), and the pathological changes in the myocardial tissues were examined. A microRNA (miRNA) microarray analysis was performed to examine the candidate miRNAs carried by the exosomes. Rescue experiments were conducted to validate the involvement of miR-141. Results CLP treatment led to sepsis and notably reduced the myocardial function in mice. Further treatment of BM-MSC-derived exosomes alleviated the CLP-induced myocardial impairment, production of CK-MB and LDH, and inflammatory infiltration and cell apoptosis in mouse myocardial tissues, and restored the PLB phosphorylation. miR-141 was the most upregulated miRNA in the myocardial tissues after exosome treatment. Downregulation of miR-141 blocked the myocardium-protective functions of the exosomes. miR-141 was found to bind to and suppress PTEN expression, which further enhanced the activity of β-catenin. Conclusion This study suggested that BM-MSC derived exosomes ameliorates myocardial injury in septic mice through conveying miRNA-141 and regulating the PTEN/β-catenin axis, and exosomes may serve as promising tools for the management of myocardial injury induced by sepsis or other factors.
TL;DR: In this article, anti-IgE drugs such as omalizumab reduce the severity and duration of COVID-19 and inhibit inflammatory cells such as neutrophils, which can lead to the activation of mast cells.
Abstract: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is associated with irreversible effects on vital organs, especially the respiratory and cardiac systems. While the immune system plays a key role in the survival of patients to viral infections, in COVID-19, there is a hyperinflammatory immune response evoked by all the immune cells, such as neutrophils, monocytes, and includes release of various cytokines, resulting in an exaggerated immune response, named cytokine storm. This severe, dysregulated immune response causes multi-organ damage, which eventually leads to high mortality. One of the most important components of hypersensitivity is immunoglobulin E (IgE), which plays a major role in susceptibility to respiratory infections and can lead to the activation of mast cells. There is also a negative association between IgE and IFN-α, which can reduce Toll-like receptor (TLR) nine receptor expression and TLR-7 signaling to disrupt IFN production. Moreover, anti-IgE drugs such as omalizumab reduces the severity and duration of COVID-19. In addition to its anti-IgE effect, omalizumab inhibits inflammatory cells such as neutrophils. Hence, blockade of IgE may have clinical utility as an immunotherapy for COVID-19.
TL;DR: In this article, the immunomodulatory effects of plant bioactive compounds on chemotherapy drug-induced immunosuppression and myelosuppressions were investigated. But they did not consider the effects of cyclophosphamide administration.
Abstract: Aim: Major side effects of cyclophosphamide administration are immunosuppression and myelosuppression. The immunomodulatory effects of plant bioactive compounds on chemotherapy drug-induced immunos...
TL;DR: In this paper, a chronic inflammatory bowel condition is considered by oxido-nitrosative stress and the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines that affect the mucosal lining of the colon.
Abstract: Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a chronic inflammatory bowel condition considered by oxido-nitrosative stress and the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines that affects the mucosal lining of the colon. ...
TL;DR: Rituximab is a FDA-approved monoclonal antibody for adults with moderate to severe potentially life-threatening pemphigus vulgaris as discussed by the authors, which has been shown to have promising efficacy and safety.
Abstract: Rituximab is a FDA-approved monoclonal antibody for adults with moderate to severe potentially life-threatening pemphigus vulgaris. Recent studies have focused on assessments of efficacy and safety...
TL;DR: In AR mouse models, glutathione could balance Th17/Treg cells, reduce autophagy, correct the levels of related cytokines in mouse serum, and shrunk mucosa thickness.
Abstract: Glutathione is a potential therapy for systemic lupus erythematosus, but its role in allergic rhinitis (AR) has not been determined. This report probed into the actions of glutathione in AR, so as ...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigated whether circular RNA (circRNA) circ_0003420 mediates inflammation in sepsis-induced liver damage and determined the mechanism involved.
Abstract: Our aim was to investigate whether circular RNA (circRNA) circ_0003420 mediates inflammation in sepsis-induced liver damage and to determine the mechanism involved.Liver tissue samples from patient...
TL;DR: The study suggested that the inhibitory mechanism of narirutin on RBL-2H3 cells degranulation could be related to regulate MAPK, NF-κB and Tyrosine kinase signaling pathway.
Abstract: Context: It is an efficient strategy to apply inhibition of mast cell degranulation for evaluating anti-allergic effects of compounds. Previous works confirmed that narirutin had anti–allergic acti...
TL;DR: In this paper, the potential effect of ellagic acid (EA) in the treatment of pancreatic injury was evaluated and EA has been found to have strong anti-inflammatory, antioxidative, and antican...
Abstract: The aim of this study was to evaluate the potential effect of ellagic acid (EA) in the treatment of pancreatic injury. EA has been found to have strong anti-inflammatory, antioxidative, and antican...
TL;DR: The current review highlights the various platforms and technologies used globally for the development of the vaccine and also focuses on the current status of the vaccines candidates under development by organizations to combat the global threat of COVID-19 pandemic.
Abstract: Pneumonia of unknown etiology was detected in a few patients in Wuhan City, Hubei Province, China. The causative agent was named as the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) by the World Health Organization (WHO). The disease caused by this virus was named as a new coronavirus disease: COVID-19. The disease has a global impact affecting more than 200 nations including the USA, India, Brazil, Russia, and Peru are the 5 most severely affected nations. The discovery of the genotype and phenotype of SARS-CoV-2 boosted the global efforts for the development of treatment options and vaccines for the COVID-19. As the transmission of the virus is rapid, to protect the global population, the development of an effective vaccine against the virus is very essential. The current review highlights the various platforms and technologies used globally for the development of the vaccine and also focuses on the current status of the vaccine candidates under development by organizations to combat the global threat of COVID-19 pandemic.
TL;DR: In this paper, the combined toxicity of BPA and nonylphenol (NP) at a clinically safe dose (100μg/kg) in rats was estimated.
Abstract: Bisphenol A (BPA) and nonylphenol (NP) are widely distributed endocrine-disrupting compounds. We aimed to estimate the combined toxicity of BPA and NP at a clinically safe dose (100 μg/kg) in rats....
TL;DR: In this article, the effects of paeoniflorin on hypoxia-induced injury and explore the underlying mechanism were investigated. But, there is no effective therapy for hypoxiosis-induced injuries due to the elusive mechanism involved.
Abstract: Context: Hypoxia-induced injury is a classic symptom of obstructive sleep apnea hypopnea syndrome (OSAHS), which is a risk factor of various diseases, such as hypertension, heart failure and stroke. However, there is no effective therapy for hypoxia-induced injury or OSAHS due to the elusive mechanism involved.Objective: This study aimed to assess the effects of paeoniflorin on hypoxia-induced injury and explore the underlying mechanism.Materials and methods: Hypoxic models of SD rats and CTX-TNA2 cells were used to assess the effect of paeoniflorin, and the expressions of hif1a, miR-210, caspase1 and GSDMD were detected using western blots and RT-PCR. Plasmid transfection was performed to explore the role of miR-210 in the effect of paeoniflorin.Results: Firstly, we confirmed that hypoxia induced severe neuronal injury and an enhancement of inflammation in the rat brain, with elevated expression of caspase1, IL1b and IL18. In addition, the results showed an activation of astrocytes and an increased level of pyroptosis under hypoxic conditions, which suggested a critical role of pyroptosis in hypoxiainduced injury of the brain. Furthermore, we found that compared with the controls, paeoniflorin treatment improved hypoxia-induced pyroptosis in astrocytes. Moreover, we detected the activation of hif1a/miR-210 signaling in the effects of paeoniflorin on astrocytes. As expected, the expression of hif1a and miR-210 was significantly upregulated in astrocytes when exposed to hypoxia, while paeoniflorin treatment reversed these enhancements. After transfection of miR-210 mimics, the attenuation of pyroptosis induced by paeoniflorin was suppressed, which was accompanied by an increase of ROS levels, as well as LDH release, indicating a critical role of miR-210 in pyroptosis in astrocytes.Conclusions: Our findings demonstrated that paeoniflorin improved hypoxia-induced pyroptosis in astrocytes via depressing hif1a/miR-210/caspase1/GSDMD signaling, providing robust evidence for the treatment of hypoxic injury and OSAHS.HighlightsHypoxia induces severe injury and inflammatory response in the rat brain;Hypoxia enhanced pyroptotic level and led to an activation of astrocytes.;Paeoniflorin alleviates hypoxia-induced pyroptosis in astrocytes;Transfection of miR-210 mimics suppressed the effects of paeoniflorin on hypoxia-induced pyroptosis in astrocytes.
TL;DR: In this paper, the effect of glycyrrhizic acid as an HMGB1 inhibitor on the early inflammation and late fibrosis in bleomycin-induced pulmonary toxicity in mice was evaluated.
Abstract: Aim High-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) protein has been noticed particularly for its pivotal role in several pathologies. However, the relevance between HMGB1 and pathological progress in lung toxicity still remains unclear. In the study, we evaluated the effect of glycyrrhizic acid as an HMGB1 inhibitor on the early inflammation and late fibrosis in bleomycin-induced pulmonary toxicity in mice. Methods We established a bleomycin-induced pulmonary toxicity model to detect the relevance between HMGB1 and pathological changes in the early inflammatory and late fibrotic stages. Results We found that bleomycin-induced increase in inflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-β1, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, monocyte chemotactic protein (MCP)-1, and inflammatory lesions in lung tissue in the early stage of the model. However, markers of fibrosis such as transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1 and α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) were significantly elevated on day 7 after bleomycin instillation. Interestingly, HMGB1 also began to rise on day 7, rather than in the early inflammatory phase. However, early (from day 0 to 14 after bleomycin instillation) or late (from day 14 to 28) intervention with HMGB1 neutralizing antibody or glycyrrhizic acid alleviated inflammation and fibrosis through down-regulating the inflammatory signaling mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and fibrotic signaling Smad3 pathway. Conclusion Our results suggested that HMGB1 mediates both inflammation and fibrosis in this model. The development of high-potency and low-toxicity HMGB1 inhibitors may be a class of potential drugs for the treatment of pulmonary fibrosis.
TL;DR: In this paper, microRNAs (miRs) have been shown to be involved in multiple pathological processes during OA, but the possible mechanism of OA was not discussed.
Abstract: Osteoarthritis (OA) is one of the leading causes of disability worldwide. microRNAs (miRs) has been shown to be involved in multiple pathological processes during OA. But the possible mechanism of ...
TL;DR: This paper showed that macrophages are essential components of the immune system, with significant roles in inflammation modulation, and they can be activated into either pro-inflammatory or anti-inflammatory phenotypes.
Abstract: Macrophages are essential components of the immune system, with significant roles in inflammation modulation. They can be activated into pro-inflammatory M1 or anti-inflammatory M2 phenotypes, depe...
TL;DR: In this article, the role of sphingosine kinase 1 (SPHK1) in the pathogenesis of UC is not clear, however its role in pathogenesis is not completely clear.
Abstract: Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a chronic inflammatory bowel disease that is associated with high sphingosine kinase 1(SPHK1) expression in the colon, however its role in pathogenesis of UC is not clear...
TL;DR: Puerarin, a natural isoflavone extracted from Radix puerariae, is famous for treating various cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases as discussed by the authors, however, little is known about its direct immunomodulatory properties.
Abstract: Puerarin, a natural isoflavone extracted from Radix puerariae, is famous for treating various cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases. However, little is known about its direct immunomodulatory...