Showing papers in "Interfaces in 1974"
TL;DR: The purpose of this paper is to explain why task uncertainty is related to organizational form, and why the cognitive limits theory of Herbert Simon was the guiding influence.
Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to explain why task uncertainty is related to organizational form. In so doing the cognitive limits theory of Herbert Simon was the guiding influence. As the consequences of cognitive limits were traced through the framework various organization design strategies were articulated. The framework provides a basis for integrating organizational interventions, such as information systems and group problem solving, which have been treated separately before.
1,974 citations
TL;DR: In the Machine Age science not only took the world apart, but it took itself apart, dividing itself into narrower and narrower disciplines as mentioned in this paper, each discipline represented a different way of looking at the same world.
Abstract: In the Machine Age science not only took the world apart, but it took itself apart, dividing itself into narrower and narrower disciplines. Each discipline represented a different way of looking at the same world. Shortly before World War II science began to put itself back together again so that it could study phenomena as a whole, from all points of view. As a result, a host of new interdisciplines emerged such as Operations Research, Cybernetics, Systems Engineering, Communications Sciences, and Environmental Sciences. Unlike earlier scientific disciplines which sought to separate themselves from each other and to subdivide; the new interdisciplines seek to enlarge themselves, to combine to take into account more and more aspects of reality. Systems Science is the limit of this process, an amalgamation of all the parts of science into an integrated whole. Thus, Systems Science is not a science, but is science taken as a whole and applied to the study of wholes.
254 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present a process of building models that will be implemented using the literature in management science, information systems and organization development along with practical experience to draw on the practical experience.
Abstract: This paper draws on the literature in management science, information systems and organization development along with practical experience to propose a process of building models that will be implemented. The steps are: 1 formulation of priors, 2 entry, 3 problem finding, 4 specification of model development criteria, 5 model building, 6 estimation and fitting, 7 tracking, and 8 continuing use. After describing the state of the art of model implementation, each step is discussed. It is hoped that this exposition will encourage comments and lead towards the specification of a methodology for model building that will make real the promise of management science.
86 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors propose a sensitivity analysis that measures the rate of change of the output of the model (the cost and performance measures) with respect to the inputs (the decisions and the environment).
Abstract: The central concept of management science is the concept of a model—that is, a relationship between those variables under the control of a decision-maker (decision variables), those not under his control (environmental variables), and one or more measures of cost or performance. To solve a model means to (1) experiment with the model to calculate the anticipated cost and performance of proposal decisions (simulation) or to calculate the decision variables that minimize or maximize a single measure of cost or performance with constraints on other measures (optimization), and (2) to perform sensitivity analyses that measure the rate of change of the “output” of the model (the cost and performance measures) with respect to the “inputs” (the decisions and the environment). The management science literature has emphasized the former objective, and in many cases the latter has been a byproduct. Optimization techniques often provide some useful sensitivity information with little or no additional computational e...
40 citations
TL;DR: This topical bibliography is to provide an introduction to the literature of behavioral decision theory, and to provide a selected bibliography for further inquiry.
Abstract: The purpose of this topical bibliography is twofold---to provide an introduction to the literature of behavioral decision theory, and to provide a selected bibliography for further inquiry. The formal will be, subject by subject, that of a brief summary, followed by citations.
19 citations
TL;DR: The capability of the management sciences to contribute significantly to today's social and political problems or to the design of the authors' institutions is open to serious doubt, yet, many practitioners feel that their discipline could and should make such a contribution.
Abstract: Concern has been widely expressed at the current state of the management sciences, both by practitioners and their clients. Some critics claim that management scientists, and particularly operations researchers, often work in isolation from the world of practical affairs, give priority to the esoteric objectives of their profession and remain more interested in the rigor of their models than in finding workable solutions to real problems. Perhaps more seriously, it is held that these disciplines have demonstrated their value in solving only a narrow range of problems which exhibit specific characteristics, for example the existence of a clearly defined objective function, and to which their portfolio of techniques applies. The capability of the management sciences to contribute significantly to today's social and political problems or to the design of our institutions is open to serious doubt. Yet, many practitioners feel that their discipline could and should make such a contribution. Moreover, many auth...
12 citations
TL;DR: My apologies for the particular style of this paper, but I've found that the usual expository method is becoming (for me) more and more ineffective and the difficulty lies in a very deep lack of communication about the so-called systems approach.
Abstract: My apologies for the particular style of this paper, but I've found that the usual expository method is becoming (for me) more and more ineffective. The difficulty lies in what I perceive to be a very deep lack of communication about the so-called systems approach. There are radically different opinions about how men should try to understand social systems, but the arguments usually proceed at the superficial level. The humanist cries out that we shouldn't try to quantify everything. To the systems analyst this complaint is altogether irrelevant, because of course he isn't trying to quantify everything, since at best such an effort is hopeless. From his point of view, the humanist's complaint amounts to trying to formulate all problems in a ridiculously vague way to justify the humanist's inability to reason precisely. So each side talks and neither listens. To the system's analyst models do provide a reasonable way of describing reality, whereas to the humanist they do not. But why each feel this way is ...
11 citations
TL;DR: The authors explored the similarities and differences between the journals Management Science (MS) and Operations Research (OR) in order to obtain answers to the following six questions: (1) Do OR and MS differ in the rate at which they introduce topics that have not previously received significant coverage in these journals?
Abstract: The references that appear in footnotes and bibliographies have been used extensively as an “unobtrusive measure” of scientific communication. By analyzing large numbers of bibliographic citations, investigators in many fields have been able to discern significant sociological and historical patterns. For example, studies of citations have revealed the structure of scientific disciplines and the linkages between various subfields; the extent of collaboration, cooperation and interpersonal communication within research specialties; and the history, growth and impact of research areas and methodologies. In this paper, bibliographic citations are used to explore in depth the similarities and differences between the journals Management Science (MS) and Operations Research (OR). Specifically, references were analyzed in order to obtain answers to the following six questions: (1) Do OR and MS differ in the rate at which they introduce topics that have not previously received significant coverage in these journa...
9 citations
TL;DR: Parkinsons and PERT as discussed by the authors address the same subject and have a close kinship, but few afficionados of either know that Parkinson's Law addresses the same topic.
Abstract: Everybody knows Parkinson's Law. Nearly everybody quotes favorite cases to warn, amuse, or arouse. The Parkinson phenomenon is recognized by managers and newsmen, by bureaucrats and their critics. The readers, even the youngest ones, can't help knowing about PERT. Some taught it, others studied it; some practiced the art, others were practiced upon. Parkinson's Law and PERT were launched internationally, and indepently, in 1957. Few afficionados of either know that Parkinson and PERT address the same subject. This close kinship deserves a popular exposition. As the two recede into history and merge into the common stream of managerial lore the perspective gained makes this task urgent.
9 citations
TL;DR: The sixth in a series of articles on the principles of operations research by Robert Machol, past president of ORSA, which were formerly published on a regular basis in OR/SA Today.
Abstract: The following is the sixth in a series of articles on the principles of operations research by Robert Machol, past president of ORSA, which were formerly published on a regular basis in OR/SA Today. As the ready will note, these are somewhat different from similarly titled subjects in the usual textbooks. In this text the Screwdriver Syndrome---another term for a solution looking for a problem---is discussed.
6 citations
TL;DR: It is important to recognise the various shortcomings and limitations of the present state of the art of mathematical modelling in order to appreciate the true contribution that can be made and to understand the blind belief of some modellers in the infinite power of mathematical analysis.
Abstract: Mathematical modelling has made an immense contribution to management—it has helped to convert muddled thinking and amorphous deliberations into an orderly analysis, allowing crucial issues to be highlighted and purposely debated. It has taken the mystique out of some managerial tasks. It has allowed for many programmable decisions to be programmed and has shown how certain analytical tools cut across conventional boundaries between types of managerial functions, or even industries. But the present shortcomings of mathematical modelling and the blind belief of some modellers in the infinite power of mathematical analysis have led to a backlash. The criticisms range from accusations that most analysts address themselves to the wrong problems, to suggestions that analytical models are inappropriate for solving managerial problems. It is important for us to recognise the various shortcomings and limitations of the present state of the art in order to appreciate the true contribution that can be made and in o...
TL;DR: Aaker, David A. as discussed by the authors, 1973. Management science in marketing: The state of the art in marketing. Interfaces 3 (4, April) 20, 20.
Abstract: Addendum to Aaker, David A. 1973. Management science in marketing: The state of the art. Interfaces 3 (4, April) 20.
TL;DR: I apologize to my contributors for not referencing them, but the material is so fragmentary and sometimes contradictory that attempting to present an integrated view makes it difficult to identify individual sources.
Abstract: About a year ago in an earlier column [Vazsonyi, Andrew. 1973. Information systems in management science. Interfaces 3 (3, May) 30–33.] I raised the issue of what steps to take in teaching information systems. Since then I have had many discussions both with colleagues in academia and in industry to assemble enough material for this column. I apologize to my contributors for not referencing them, but the material is so fragmentary and sometimes contradictory that attempting to present an integrated view makes it difficult to identify individual sources. Perhaps the most striking aspect of the educational situation in information systems is lack of consensus on what to do and wide disparity in status among schools. The relationship to computer science is also widely divergent. In some schools computer science includes information systems; in some there is a sharp conflict between the two fields; while others have no computer science groups at all, or there is no interaction.
TL;DR: Operations Research is, in its elementary form, going to be as widespread as mathematics and physics nowadays as mentioned in this paper, but only if we meet the challenge and are willing to communicate to the surroundings not only the proper use of our own remedies, including management sciences, but also remedies, such as information processing and automatic control.
Abstract: Operations Research is, in its elementary form, going to be as widespread as mathematics and physics nowadays. But only IF we meet the challenge and are willing to communicate to the surroundings not only the proper use of our own remedies, including management sciences, but also remedies, such as information processing and automatic control. Operations Research for laymen in the post industrial society will require deep and exciting research, and we are in the lucky situation that we, through the work heretofore carried out, are in possession of quite a number of results suitable for this type of communication with our surroundings. The Operations Research process is a combination of logic and creativity. With our youth behind us, we can hope that in the future our science as a melting-pot for new developments—for the benefit of mankind—is going to be even more valuable. We are going to take part in the choice of the futures of our industrial society.
TL;DR: This is the seventh of a set of articles on principles of operations research, where the reader will note, these are somewhat different from similarly titled subjects in the usual textbooks.
Abstract: This is the seventh of a set of articles on principles of operations research. As the reader will note, these are somewhat different from similarly titled subjects in the usual textbooks. We contin...
TL;DR: In the fall of 1973, a mailed survey was conducted to learn more about the audience of TIMS journals and co-incidentally about the membership of the TIMS as discussed by the authors, which was designed to develop profiles of the readers on several dimensions, to find out the readership habits of the population, to determine the usefulness of TIMs journals vis-a-vis journals of other professional societies, and to uncover changes desired in TIMS publications.
Abstract: In the fall of 1973 a mailed survey was conducted to learn more about the audience of TIMS journals and co-incidentally about the membership of TIMS. The questionnaire was designed to develop profiles of the readers on several dimensions, to find out the readership habits of the population, to determine the usefulness of TIMS journals vis-a-vis journals of other professional societies, and to try to uncover changes desired in the TIMS publications.
TL;DR: The first three are past history, naturally, while the last one refers to "futurology" as practiced by George Orwell and perhaps others who, like us, are also eager to influence the futures that can materialize from ingredients presently at hand.
Abstract: The title of this talk is intended to indicate the dates (approximately) on which we have been, or may be, reporting to TIMS audiences in meetings such as this one. The first three are past history, naturally, while the last one refers to “futurology”, as practiced by George Orwell and perhaps others who, like us, are also eager to influence the futures that can materialize from ingredients presently at hand.
TL;DR: It has long been one of the basic working tenets of this writer to concentrate on the political problems in getting Management Science used.
Abstract: It has long been one of the basic working tenets of this writer to concentrate on the political problems in getting Management Science used. Too often the political problems are given a definite back seat to the technical problems. The result of such short-sightedness is usually initial enthusiastic acceptance of a model with eventual failure of implementation.
TL;DR: These questions have recently been raised by Professor Harold J. Leavitt of Stanford Graduate School of Business in a paper, “Beyond the Analytic Manager” and his first reaction is on a continuum: “obviously yes” to the first, ‘possibly yes’ to the second, and “not proven but vitally important“ to the fourth.
Abstract: Do we too often ignore the limitations of analytic thinking? Is training in management science turning out too many managers who are weak in problem selection and implementation, while overtrained in model analysis? Are decision-makers reacting against a real or imagined attempt at dominance by arrogant management scientists? Finally, is analytical training actually destructive of useful powers of intuition and integration? These questions have recently been raised by Professor Harold J. Leavitt of Stanford Graduate School of Business in a paper, “Beyond the Analytic Manager.” My first reaction to them is on a continuum: “obviously yes” to the first, “possibly yes” to the second, “both yes and no” to the third, and “not proven but vitally important” to the fourth.
TL;DR: This paper contains an analysis that focuses on the problem as seen by the average driver and asks: “What can be done to shorten ridiculously long lines at the pumps?”
Abstract: It is probably safe to assume that there is no one unaware of the recent gasoline shortage. The debates still go on regarding whether or not the shortage was “real” (government and/or oil company conspiracies, etc.) but one thing is sure: The lines at the gas pumps were real. It is easy to find individuals proposing solutions, and it is equally easy to find individuals who claim that each of these solutions won't work. Frequently any analysis to show why a particular solution will or will not work is missing. This paper contains an analysis that focuses on the problem as seen by the average driver. The key issue is: “What can be done to shorten ridiculously long lines at the pumps?”
TL;DR: This column aims to create controversy over pragmatics, that is, the receiver's reaction to the sender's intentions in communication syntax, semantics, pragmatic.
Abstract: In earlier columns we dealt with the three levels of the semiotic structure of communication syntax, semantics, pragmatics and discussed in some detail the semantic problems arising in information systems. Now we aim to create controversy over pragmatics, that is, the receiver's reaction to the sender's intentions. Later we will conclude our trilogy by discussing syntax.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors discuss the common problems of the internal consultant and consider some tactics for survival, and the most frequent questions run something like: "Well, I agree that you can do what you suggest, but you must recognize that I am an internal consultant, now tell me what will work for me."
Abstract: Whenever I speak before a local TIMS and/or ORSA chapter, certain questions keep occuring. One of the most frequent questions runs something like: “Well, I agree that you can do what you suggest, but you must recognize that I am an internal consultant, now tell me what will work for me.” The inference is clear, that there is a profound difference between being an internal consultant and an external consultant. Further it is usually implied that an external consultant has much more freedom to say and do outrageous things than the internal one. Also everyone understands that the external consultant can always leave money in hand, and never be seen again, while the internal consultant has to stay and face the music. For this reason many internal consultants count the days when they can leave Amalgamated Conglomerate Inc. and go into business for themselves. It doesn't often take too long before they are back being an internal consultant again, sadder, wiser, and in debt. Let's take some of the common problems of the internal consultant and consider some tactics for survival.
TL;DR: The informatic approach looks at human thinking, organized activity, electronic data processing and management as symbolic phenomena, whose behavior is regulated by a multiplicity of models and programs, all of them instances of information systems.
Abstract: The informatic approach looks at human thinking, organized activity, electronic data processing and management as symbolic phenomena, whose behavior is regulated by a multiplicity of models and programs, all of them instances of information systems; of course they differ because of the diversity of the hardware employed, and even more because of the enormous variety of problems encountered [Newell, Allen, Herbert A. Simon. 1972. Human Problem solving. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, p. 870]. The symbolic solution to problems must be therefore understood along three lines [Newell, Allen, Herbert A. Simon. 1972. Human Problem solving. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, p. 789]: 1 Description of problems presented by the task environment; this is the typical area of Operations Research, 2 Description of the man-machine processor, be it a group or an institution; Behavioral Sciences study the human processors, which may be significantly influenced by computer technology, and 3 Description of the program which is gradually compiled by the social processor to adapt itself to a task required by the environment. This is the enormous endevour to be undertaken by Management Science.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors argue that the focus of management science people has been largely that of model development and construction, which has led to the conclusion that management science teams are composed of "model perverts".
Abstract: Throughout the development of management science, there have been complaints that staff people in this field have been insensitive to the overall goals of the organization. The focus of management science people has been largely that of model development and construction. In short, this has led to the conclusion that management science teams are composed of “model perverts.”
If this is true, then there are some important motivational considerations that must be kept in mind. An understanding of these considerations is crucial to assuring that management science will be both effectively utilized and well integrated with the goals of the organization.
TL;DR: Huse and Beer as discussed by the authors pointed out that O.D. should go far beyond the limited techniques used by some well-known practitioners of the field i.e., the sensitivity trainers or the T-groupers, and thus could be defined as the constant application of all behavioral change theory to an operating organization's problems.
Abstract: In the foreword to an article on organizational development written by two highly respected psychologists, Edgar F. Huse of Boston College and Michael Beer of Corning Glass, the statement is made that “some of the most exciting management methods during the past 20 years have been those going under the label of 'organizational development' ” Huse, E. F., M. Beer. 1971. Eclectic approach to organizational development. Harvard Bus. Rev. September--October 103--12.. I would add that some of the most depressing methods have been going under that label as well. Huse and Beer go on to suggest an eclectic approach, one appropriate to a particular environment and set of goals, as opposed to a narrow definition of “O.D.” In this column, I would like to strengthen their suggestion by pointing out that O.D. should go far beyond the limited techniques used by some well-known practitioners of the field i.e., the sensitivity trainers or the “T-groupers”, and thus could be defined as the constant application of all behavioral change theory to an operating organization's problems.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present a series of articles on the principles of operations research, which are somewhat different from similarly titled subjects in the usual textbooks, as the reader will note.
Abstract: This is the eighth in a series of articles on the principles of operations research. As the reader will note, these are somewhat different from similarly titled subjects in the usual textbooks.
The late Robert Burns, a radio comedian of a generation ago, was distinguished from the poet of the same name by the nickname “Bazooka”, from the home-made musical instrument which he played and made famous. Many of his stories centered around Arkansas, and one in particular described a technique for weighing hawgs which he had observed there: Select a perfectly symmetrical plank, and balance it across a sawhorse. Place the hawg on one end of the plank, and pile rocks carefully on the other end until it has just returned to an equilibrium position. Then guess the weight of the rocks.
TL;DR: In a recent article in the Harvard Business Review [Grayson, C. as mentioned in this paper, 1973], Dr. C. Jackson Grayson discussed the shortcomings of the MS/OR establishment and clearly implied that, by and large, practitioners of MS and OR wouldn't know how to punch their way out of a paper bag. Another monumental implication seemed to be that the professon, with very few exceptions, was made up of either fools or knaves.
Abstract: In recent article in the Harvard Business Review [Grayson, C. Jackson, Jr. 1973. Management science and business practice. Harvard Bus. Rev. July--August 41--48.], Dr. C. Jackson Grayson discussed the shortcomings of the MS/OR establishment. The article clearly implies that, by and large, practitioners of MS/OR wouldn't know how to punch their way out of a paper bag. Another monumental implication seemed to be that the professon, with very few exceptions, was made up of either fools or knaves. One is left with the uneasy feeling that the MS/OR profession is moving in time to a stately pavane [2], while the world that needs our help is getting its vibes from Alice Cooper or the Led Zeppelin [3].
At the time of this writing, this columnist is not aware of any real reply to, nor discussion of, Dr. Grayson's article in the MS/OR literature. This unfortunate situation, it is hoped, will be somewhat rectified by the following discussion from an admittedly pragmatic point of view.
TL;DR: The question is often raised by the computer sophisticates: Why don't the behavioral researchers use the computer more for simulation of an essentially changing probabalistic environment so that they may test complicated models, rather than batch-processing endless amounts of primitive data?
Abstract: As organizational and individual behavior theories attempt to account for more variation in their data, it becomes necessary to use more complex models to describe the new theories. It may be especially pertinent to include dynamic, that is, time-based, variables. Hence, the question is often raised by the computer sophisticates: “Why don't the behavioral researchers use the computer more for simulation of an essentially changing probabalistic environment so that they may test complicated models, rather than batch-processing endless amounts of primitive data? In reviewing some of my possible answers to this question, I wonder if there aren't some generalizations one could make regarding relationships between management science and the rest of the research world?
TL;DR: It is claimed that knowing you can learn programming is not the same as knowing programming.
Abstract: I left syntax, the third branch of semiotics, as the last to be discussed after semantics and pragmatics because of our strange attitude toward syntax. We consider it beneath our dignity to be concerned with mere syntax, grammar or even computer programming. “I would have no difficulty mastering programming,” my friends declare. “Even my underlings and students have had no difficulty. Why should I?” But I claim that knowing you can learn programming is not the same as knowing programming.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors pointed out that the leading publication, by far, in terms of influence with the management public, the Harvard Business Review, has not responsibly informed its readers of current Behavioral Science developments.
Abstract: One of the major concerns of most behavioral scientists who study the management of organizations is that their “public” understand the general nature of the theory they are trying to develop and have sympathy with the research methods used in developing this theory. Yet, I have the strong suspicion that the leading publication, by far, in terms of influence with the management public, the Harvard Business Review, has not responsibly informed its readers of current Behavioral Science developments. In fact, on the basis of informal data I have collected, I suspect that the Federal Trade Commission might want to consider HBR in violation of the “truth-in-labeling” act!