Showing papers in "International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship in 2019"

Start-up motives and challenges facing female entrepreneurs in Tanzania

Abstract: Research on women-owned business is more extensive in developed countries than in developing countries and such one cannot compare the results. This paper aims to examine the motives of women in Tanzania (a less developed country) to start their own businesses and the challenges they faced in running their businesses.,Based on 400 response to a semi-structured questionnaire and in-depth interview with 20 female entrepreneurs. Subsequently, descriptive and factors analysis were performed to analyze the data,Based on survey responses, the primary reason for starting a business was to create employment for the woman herself. Other motives include supplementing income and enabling women to be able to do the kind of work they wanted to do. According to the factor analysis, female entrepreneurs are driven more by push factors than pull factors. The most serious problems faced by female entrepreneurs are lack of access to finance, gender-related problems and social and cultural commitments.,The sample was selected from urban areas of only three regions, out of 26 regions in Tanzania. Researchers may extend the study to other regions; also, the non-probability sampling method used in this study essentially means that there is a limitation to the extent to which the research findings can be generalized to the rest of the population of female entrepreneurs in Tanzania.,Policy makers, financial institutions and all organization that have a stake on development on female entrepreneurs in Tanzania should design policies and programs that encourage and promote the creation and growth of businesses. Collective efforts from the government, public and private institutions and NGOs are needed to eliminate the challenges, especially gender-related problems.,By studying female owner-managers’ motivations and constraints, the author suggests that to a greater extent, gender-related problems, social and cultural commitments and access to finance and networks are the constraints faced by female entrepreneurs.,The research on female entrepreneurs in the context of Tanzania is scarce, this study responds to a need of better understanding women motivations and constraints. By studying these factors, this study shows that startup motives and constraints faced by female entrepreneurs are unique to different contexts.

Influences of role models and gender on Saudi Arabian freshman students’ entrepreneurial intention

Abstract: Purpose There have been few investigations regarding the relationship of gender and role models with students’ entrepreneurial intention (EI). The purpose of this study is to apply a conceptual framework to explain the relationship of gender and role models with the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) constructs: attitudes towards behaviour (ATB), subjective norms (SN), perceived behaviour control (PBC) and intentions. Design/methodology/approach The study is based on data collected from a questionnaire survey completed by 1,496 freshman Saudi students enrolled during the 2016-2017 academic year in business, finance and economics undergraduate programmes. To analyse the data and test the proposed hypotheses, a confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modelling (SEM) are applied. Findings The results show that the TPB constructs are validated in the specific Saudi context. In fact, these constructs were significantly related to EI. Only the SN and PBC constructs mediate the relationship between role models and EI. Furthermore, gender moderates the relationships of role models with EI, PBC with EI and role models with the SN. More precisely, this study reveals that gender differences in SN and PBC, and women’s EI are more likely to be influenced by the SN and PBC than men’s EI. However, PBC is a relevant determinant for both male and female students. These results differ from those of previous studies on gender influences. These results could be explained by two main reasons, such as women’s socialization and institutional processes. Research limitations/implications The main limitation is that it was not possible to claim generalization of findings. Theoretical and managerial implications are proposed to add new evidence in the field. These results could help all stakeholders engaged in promoting entrepreneurship in Saudi Arabia and stimulate appropriate and customized entrepreneurial initiatives, curriculum and policies for both men and women. Originality/value This study is one of the first to conduct such investigations in Saudi Arabia and in institutions of higher education. This study removes the stereotypes about the entrepreneurial potential of women.

Context, gender and entrepreneurial intentions How entrepreneurship education changes the equation

Abstract: This paper aims to explore how gender differences in entrepreneurial intentions (EI) change when entrepreneurship education (EE) is added to the force field of macro-social stimulants and inhibitors of female EI in the particular context of the United Arab Emirates (UAE).,The study is based on a pre-post survey with entrepreneurship students and students with a similar profile enrolled in other courses (N = 246) at three universities. The three main hypotheses are evaluated through independent-samples t-tests and a hierarchical multiple regression analysis.,The findings indicate a negative effect of gender stereotypes on female students’ EI in the UAE, regardless of the course type. Furthermore, entrepreneurship courses appear to be more successful than other courses in raising the EI of students in general and female students in particular. Finally, adding EE to the equation of macro-social inhibitors and stimulants of female EI in the UAE seems to tip the balance in favor of the influence of economic affluence, rapid modernization and proactive governmental policies to stimulate the entrepreneurial spirit among female residents. That is, at the end of the entrepreneurship courses, there was no significant gender difference in EI anymore and female students are significantly more likely to experience a positive change in EI than male students.,The literature review identifies the need for future studies to evaluate the impact of variability in sampling and methods among previous studies on gender effects in EE. Building on the findings, future studies could identify which aspects of EE are pivotal for customizing female students’ specific local interests and needs. The study is limited in the sense that the data set did not enable tests of moderators at the course level (which mostly requires more qualitative data) and individual level. In addition, the sample is not representative for all female residents in the UAE at large.,This study might stimulate (UAE) policymakers to increase the scope and quality of EE. In turn, university administrators are recommended to find ways to compensate the self-selection effect (overcome likely opt-out by female students) when entrepreneurship courses are elective.,This exploration was inspired by the strong emphasis that Julie Weeks put on the gendered impact of macro-level factors in business enabling environments (Weeks, 2011). The empirical analysis builds on a conceptual framework that integrates Krueger’s model of EI, theory on gender stereotypes in entrepreneurship and previous literature on the role of EE (reinforcing or mitigating stereotypes). The study is executed in the relatively unexplored context of the UAE, which offers strong macro-social inhibitors for and stimulants of female entrepreneurship.

Symmetric and asymmetric modeling of entrepreneurial ecosystem in developing entrepreneurial intentions among female university students in Saudi Arabia

Abstract: Unlike previous studies that examine the role of different entrepreneurial ecosystem factors in predicting entrepreneurial intentions. The purpose of this study is to explain the direct effects of entrepreneurial ecosystem factors effecting entrepreneurial intentions and configurational combinations of entrepreneurial ecosystem factors that cause high or low entrepreneurial intentions among female university students in Saudi Arabia.,The study used structured survey-questionnaire based data collected from 310 female students enrolled in different universities in Saudi Arabia. The study used symmetric analysis using structural equation modeling technique, whereas asymmetric analysis is performed using the fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis, necessary condition analysis is also used to identify the role of different entrepreneurial ecosystem factors in increasing and/or decreasing entrepreneurial intentions among young Saudi women.,The results of symmetrical analysis show that access to finance, access to physical infrastructure, and cultural factors are not significantly associated with entrepreneurial intentions, whereas government policies and regulations, government programs and support, social factors and entrepreneurship education and training are significantly associated with the development of entrepreneurial intentions among female Saudi university students. While the result of asymmetrical analysis provides 15 configurational models that explains the high levels of certain factors to predict entrepreneurial intentions among female university students in Saudi Arabia. Specifically, social support is found as necessary condition in majority of models to predict high levels of entrepreneurial intentions among female Saudi university students.,The results of the study provide empirical evidence to policymakers in Saudi Arabia. The study proposes that it is not mandatory that the high levels of all entrepreneurial ecosystem factors are important to predict high entrepreneurial intentions, rather in some conditions the low levels of certain factors are obligatory to predict high levels of entrepreneurial intentions.,Two-step mix-method approach is used in this study containing analysis of symmetric within entrepreneurial ecosystem increase or decrease entrepreneurial intentions among female university students in Saudi Arabia. There has been plenty of research that examines the role of entrepreneurial ecosystem factors in development of university students’ entrepreneurial intentions, however there is less research evident in the entrepreneurship literature that examine the configurational effects of factors within entrepreneurial ecosystem in increasing and/or decreasing entrepreneurial intentions among female university students.

Technology adoption and gender-inclusive entrepreneurship education and training

Abstract: Drawing on social feminist theory, this paper aims to close gaps between knowledge about gender-related barriers to information, communication and technology (ICT) adoption and the provision of entrepreneurship education and training (EET) programs.,Empirical findings are drawn from 21 semi-structured interviews (22 informants) possessing differing training expertise regarding digital technology among women entrepreneurs. An open-coding technique was adopted where descriptive codes were first assigned to meaningful statements. Interpretive and pattern codes were then assigned to indicate common themes and patterns, which were reduced to higher-order categories to inform the research questions.,The findings specify and validate further gender influences in the digital economy. Digital skills are identified, and strategies to close gender barriers to ICT adoption with EET are described. The findings are discussed in reference to a large-scale, Canadian ICT adoption program.,Perceptual data may be idiosyncratic to the sample. The work did not control for type of technology. Gender influences may differ by type of technology.,Findings can be used to construct gender-inclusive ICT supports and inform ICT adoption policies. This includes program eligibility and evaluation criteria to measure the socio-economic impacts.,The study is among the first to examine the intersection between knowledge about gender-related barriers to ICT adoption and EET. The findings can be adopted to ICT support programs targeted at small business owners and entrepreneurs.

Entrepreneurial intentions and gender: pathways to start-up

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to revisit the conceptualization and measurement of entrepreneurial intentions. Significant studies anchored in the Theory of Planned Behavior use causal statistical approaches to entrepreneurial intentions. This methodological approach, leads to the conclusion that there is a single pathway for all groups of people to achieve business start-up. Even though theory suggests approaches by women entrepreneurs to start a business may be influenced by different factors from those influencing men, results are inconclusive in these analyses. The authors argue that methodological preferences for linear, causal analytical approaches limit the understanding of gender similarities and differences in the business start-up process. The authors propose that when considering diverse samples, it is unreasonable to assume there is only a single pathway leading to business start-up.,Building on fuzzy-set Qualitative Comparative Analysis (fsQCA) and data set of 2,038 respondents, the authors investigate factors predicting the intentions to start a business and evaluate the alternative conjunctive paths that emerge.,The fsQCA results shows that the relationship among conditions leading to entrepreneurial intentions is complex and is best represented as multiple and conjectural causation configurations. In other words, there are multiple significant pathways (refers to equifinality) that predict intentions to start a business start-up, and there are significant differences by gender.,This study is one of the first to examine the roll of gender as a sperate condition in the analysis. This paper offers implications for theory and future research and highlights the complexity of this domain.

Cultural orientation, perceived support and participation of female students in formal entrepreneurship in the sub-Saharan economy of Ghana

Abstract: This purpose of this paper is to examine cultural orientations and intention of Ghanaian women to engage in entrepreneurship while assessing the role of perceived support system. The aim is to contribute to the literature in the sub-Saharan African context where women entrepreneurs are generally under-researched, despite their increasing significant roles in socio-economic development in the continent even in the face of huge cultural barriers.,The study uses a hierarchical regression analysis and Hay’s PROCESS moderation technique to analyze survey data from 190 female students from Ghana, Africa.,The results indicate that uncertainty avoidance and power distance cultural orientations have significant positive and negative effects, respectively, on women’s participation in formal entrepreneurship. However, collectivism and masculine cultural orientations do not have any effect on their intention to engage in formal entrepreneurial activity. The study further shows that perceived support system has a buffering effect on the destructive consequences of power distance culture on formal entrepreneurship intentions. On the contrary, perceived support does not moderate the relationship between uncertainty avoidance, collectivism and masculine cultural and formal entrepreneurial intention.,Given the fact that most African governments are making efforts to accelerate the growth and development of their economies via entrepreneurship and economic empowerment, this study’s findings encourage stakeholders to implement measures to leverage on the positive dimensions of cultures to facilitate the development of formal entrepreneurship among Ghanaian women while mitigating the negative consequences of cultural practices. The findings further highlight the need to evaluate the current level of support given to women in Ghana. The study suggests that provision of sufficient level of support can make women more willing to challenge the status quo in power distance cultures and take personal initiatives, thereby leading to more formal entrepreneurial actions.,This study is a significant addition to women entrepreneurship literature because the role of culture in females’ intention to participate in entrepreneurship is generally an under-researched area. Besides, our examination of national cultural variation at the individual level on formal entrepreneurship intention in a heterogeneous setting is novel. The study also highlights the buffering roles of perceived support on the destructive consequences of power distance cultural orientation on formal entrepreneurial development among women.

Determinants of innovation decisions among Emirati female-owned small and medium enterprises

Abstract: The purpose of this study is to investigate the factors that influence the innovation decisions of Emirati women-owned small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs).,This study uses a two-phased approach. In the first phase, empirical research on 50 Emirati female entrepreneurs is conducted to discover the extent of innovation in their ventures. In the second phase, the study uses an analytical hierarchy process (AHP) to prioritize factors considered important in facilitating business innovation among SMEs. The AHP model is developed with 9 criteria and 25 sub-criteria based on the previous literature. Face-to-face interviews are conducted with Emirati female entrepreneurs operating nascent (n = 10), start-up (n = 10) and established innovative (n = 10) businesses to collect data for the AHP study. The data collected are interpreted and a priority vector is assigned to each criterion and sub-criterion.,Female SME owners prioritize government policies, research and development, innovation strategy and skill development as the main criteria that influence their innovation decisions. Family support, access to external financing, social networks and the allocation of funds are the main sub-criteria affecting their decisions to be innovative. Furthermore, respondents who are in the nascent business stage consider family motivation as the greatest influence on initiating new ideas through financial and moral support. Among all respondents, the nascent business owners rank skill development the highest because they are still in the initial stages of their business journeys, and thus, obtaining these skills could help them increase innovation and success in their ventures. However, respondents in the established stage rank innovation strategy the highest.,The study results can help policymakers and women’s associations, such as businesswomen councils, identify the specific inhibitors and facilitators linked to innovation and, thereby, help develop various effective policies to promote innovation among Emirati women-owned SMEs.,The study is one attempt to facilitate innovation among Emirati women-owned SMEs through its efforts to discover the determinants of innovation efforts at nascent, start-up and established business stages as defined by the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (2012). The study can help Emirati women-owned SMEs understand the critical factors influencing innovation and can encourage them to incorporate innovative characteristics for business growth and resilience. Furthermore, the study can provide insights for policymakers, financial institutions and non-governmental organizations on factors hindering innovation among Emirati women-owned SMEs, which may serve as a tool for creating resilience among female entrepreneurs.

How do female entrepreneurs in developing countries cope with role conflict

Abstract: Female entrepreneurs often face significant conflicts in allocating time and resources to the various roles demanded of them by their communities. This has been identified as a potential obstacle to their performance as entrepreneurs. This paper aims to examine the question: How do women cope with role conflict?,The authors tackled the question by conducting a survey that involved 307 female business owners in Ethiopia. The survey result was supported by 20 in-depth interviews.,The commonest coping strategies identified were negotiation, committing to the entrepreneurial role, committing to social roles, pleasing all, seeking social support and hiring outside support. A multivariate analysis of variance revealed that these coping strategies differed across the various stages of business growth. Meanwhile, structural equation modeling established that female business owners with high levels of personal resources (such as optimism, self-efficacy and resilience) committed more to their entrepreneurial roles than to their social roles.,This research contributes knowledge on coping strategies among female entrepreneurs in sub-Saharan Africa, where family structure and orientation, the economy and social development differ from those in developed countries. The research also integrates the lines of empirical research on coping strategies with the process-based view of entrepreneurship.

Saudi female innovators as entrepreneurs – theoretical underpinnings

Abstract: This research is based on a theoretical interest and practical need to examine female actors as entrepreneurs and innovators. The Saudi Vision 2030 emphasizes entrepreneurship, innovation and stronger female participation in the work force. The purpose of this paper is to point to theoretical underpinnings in female entrepreneurial and innovative activity and to examine success factors for female entrepreneurial innovators in the context of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA).,The paper is based on secondary data sources. The secondary data in this research were collected from recent academic journals related to female innovation and entrepreneurship. The selected literature represents international and regional (Middle Eastern) research, including research addressing KSA.,Theories are not universal but contextually bound, and Western theories may not directly apply to the KSA context. The late female labor history and gender segregation have not formed an environment similar to the West where innovation has a male connotation and where gender is created or recreated in interaction. The paper suggests gender differences and similarities in innovation as a suitable approach to examine female entrepreneurs and innovators in KSA. While there are similar tendencies between the Saudi and international contexts in regard success factors, KSA inhibits unique factors associated with female entrepreneurs and innovators and their environment.,This research is aimed at academia and offers points to consider for theoretical examination, focusing on the fitness of theory from an economic, social and cultural perspectives. The research may offer knowledge to policymakers and practitioners in the Middle East region and KSA when applying new policies on entrepreneurship and innovation.,The value of the research lies in its timeliness. While there are economic rationales for research on female entrepreneurial innovators, there are theory-related reasons to examine the topic. With the increased interest in research on Saudi female entrepreneurs, academic discussion needs to take a closer look at the context to gain an understanding of how theoretical approaches may or may not transfer across regions.

Gendered processes of agricultural innovation in the Northern uplands of Vietnam.

Abstract: This paper aims to explore ethnic minority women’s gendered perceptions and processes of agricultural innovation in the Northern uplands of Vietnam. The key research question asks how women develop innovations and learn new agricultural practices within patriarchal family structures.,In-depth interviews including life histories were conducted with 17 female and 10 male farmers from different socio-economic groups; participant observation and key informant interviews were also carried out.,Women’s innovation processes are deeply embedded in their positions as wives and daughters-in-law. Their innovation tends to be incremental, small-scale and less technological, and they use innovation networks of women rather than those of the formal agricultural institutions, including bringing innovation knowledge from their birth family to the patrilocal household. Unlike men’s perceived innovation, women’s innovation is strongly linked to small-scale entrepreneurship, and it is a powerful approach in the sense that it strengthens the position of women in their families while improving the household economy.,Identifying socially constructed innovation processes helps policymakers to rethink the introduction of ready-made innovation packages, both in terms of content and delivery, and to facilitate innovation for women, as well as men, in marginalized positions.,Understanding the gendered processes of innovation instead of measuring gender gaps in innovation outcomes sheds light on women’s interests and preferences, which can inform policies for supporting women’s innovation and thereby lead to social change, including gender equity.,This paper contributes to the understanding of gendered innovation processes and entrepreneurship associated with agriculture in rural areas in non-Western ethnic-minority contexts, which is an area that past and current research on entrepreneurship has relatively ignored.

Dynamics encouraging women towards embracing entrepreneurship: Case study of Mena countries

Abstract: Women entrepreneurship is the fundamental carter of economic development. This study aims to identify the dynamics that encourage entrepreneurial attitudes among women in MENA countries. More precisely, it required to scrutinize the role of the government, role models, the entrepreneurial training and women’s demographic characteristics in encouraging women to embrace entrepreneurship.,This study is based on primary data, where data were gathered from a sample of 300 women from MENA countries through a self-administered questionnaire and were subjected to one-way ANOVA tests. Different statistical tools were used to draw some valued conclusions from the gathered data. The study reveals that women entrepreneurs acknowledge the role played by the government, entrepreneurship training, role models and demographic variables in encouraging them to embrace entrepreneurship.,The government and the entrepreneurial training were found to be the greatest variables encouraging women to embrace entrepreneurship. Nevertheless, the low overall mean exhibited that most women do not believe that these bodies have played their role satisfactorily. Whereas the ANOVA results reveal that age and work experience were not important dynamics behind encouraging women to embrace entrepreneurship.,Data were collected from a sample of 300 women entrepreneurs with a simple random sampling technique from the following MENA countries: Oman, Qatar, Egypt, Jordan, Saudi Arabia and United Arab Emirates. It is too difficult to approach the women respondents and then collect data from them especially in MENA countries; hence the sample is small and limited.,However, such studies are still in the minority, and, with few exceptions, most have been published in the niche. The study finds imperative for policymakers to go beyond measures that aim to address the challenges that individual women entrepreneurs face and to study the institutional framework affecting women entrepreneurship in relationship to motivations and resources. Additional care is desired to compel the environment and context to eliminate barriers to women entrepreneurship at source. The government should play a significant role in encouraging women to embrace entrepreneurship, especially in times of economic slowdown. World-wide, women are under-represented among the population of entrepreneurs, and they tend to have different motivations and intentions. The first, and most obvious, implication highlights governments need to create special funds for unlocking the potential by enhancing their levels of entrepreneurship skills using the traditional instruments such as training. The government should come up with new and specific training programmes, providing support for growth-oriented women entrepreneurs with dedicated business incubator and business accelerator programmes.,Entrepreneurs are strongly influenced by role models and social context. It is therefore important to promote women entrepreneurs as role models and ensure that the education system is gender-neutral and does not discourage women from going into different fields. Finally, more targeted actions can be taken to ensure that family policies, social policies and tax policies do not discriminate against entrepreneurship by women.,The author believes that only few entrepreneurship researchers are interested in feminist epistemology, disappointingly the more advanced understanding of feminism witnessed in sociology and the political science literature is not reflected in the field of entrepreneurship. Hence, there is a need for investigate the dynamics like government role, entrepreneurial training, role models and demographic characteristics, to have a fuller understanding of how they affect, to ensure a more accurate assessment of the outcomes for the development of women entrepreneurs in MENA countries. This study is an attempt to investigate the dynamics such as government role, entrepreneurial training, role models and demographic characteristics that encourage women to embrace entrepreneurship in MENA countries.

Ranking the enablers promoting female empowerment in the UAE health care sector

Abstract: The purpose of this study is to identify and rank the enablers that promote female empowerment in the health-care sector in the United Arab Emirates (UAE).,This study uses the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) to rank the enablers that promote female empowerment in the health-care sector. The AHP model was developed with 7 criteria and 28 sub-criteria based on previous literature. Data were collected through interviews of 24 female Emirati medical professionals. The respondents were selected from UAE-based public and private health-care units. The data collected were interpreted, and a priority vector was assigned to each criterion and sub-criterion.,It is observed that organizational human resource policies, organizational culture and institutional factors take top priority under the main enablers, and training and development, ethical environment and institutional and legal systems were determined to be the three most important sub-enablers that promote female empowerment in the UAE health-care sector.,The major limitation of this study is that it is conducted only in the UAE. Similar studies should be carried out in other GCC (Gulf Cooperation Council) countries due to the governmental and cultural homogeneity. The study will help policymakers and health-care organizations in the GCC to adopt the best approaches that transform work cultures and realize the potential of investing in female and their contribution to the national economy.,Female empowerment has been a challenging task for the mainstream literature of gender advancement. This study is the first of its kind to propose an AHP model that ranks the enablers that promote female empowerment in the UAE health-care sector.

Nigerian immigrant women’s entrepreneurial embeddedness in Ghana, West Africa

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to highlight the role of female immigrant entrepreneurs generally and more specifically Nigerian women entrepreneurs in Ghana, West Africa.,This is a qualitative research that draws on a broad-based research on Nigerian men and women immigrants’ entrepreneurship in Ghana. Face-to-face interviews with six women in the study are analysed here to provide insights into their motivations for and embeddedness of their entrepreneurship activities in Ghana.,The women’s entrepreneurship activities lend themselves to the mixed embeddedness argument in two ways: first is their ethnic embeddedness, and second their embeddedness in informality and policy framework. Also, all the women work in very trying circumstances and thus display what can be described as a “daring entrepreneurship” drive.,This paper is positioned at the intersection of ethnic embeddedness, informality and daring entrepreneurial drive by migrant women.,The paper provides an unprecedented and a refreshing account on the entrepreneurship and operational pathways of women in the margin of the global economy.

Values and women-led social entrepreneurship

Abstract: This paper aims to identify and categorise the values expressed in women-led social entrepreneurship based on a typology of universal values. It explores the influence of gender and religious faith on the values that inspire social entrepreneurial organisations to engage in positive social change.,Inductive multiple case study research investigates the values manifest in five social entrepreneurial organisations founded and led by women in three Southeast Asian countries.,Organisations and their women-leaders express values related to benevolence, universalism, self-direction and security. Gender and religious faith are found to be mediators that influence approaches to social transformation.,Purposive sampling and interpretive research design favour rich description but limit the generalisability of the findings. Further enquiry is needed into the gender-values-religion nexus in social entrepreneurship.,Social entrepreneurship is shown to be a process embedded in and motivated by prosocial values of benevolence and social justice and other values of self-direction and security. Findings provide evidence for the critical but often overlooked influence of gender and religious faith on the values foundation of social entrepreneurship.,Social entrepreneurial organisations led by women contribute to positive social change through the values they incorporate and express.,Research on the link between gender, values and religious faith in social entrepreneurship is virtually non-existent.

The evolution of female entrepreneurship in the Gulf Cooperation Council, the case of Bahrain

Abstract: Bahrain is a member of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). It is the third smallest country in Asia. Like its neighbours’, Bahrain’s economy is developing fast and the place of women in the work landscape is evolving. But few papers discuss the situation of women entrepreneurs in this country. The purpose of this paper is to study the evolution of women entrepreneurship in Bahrain, a country in the midst of high transition. The research question is: How do Bahraini women cope with the evolution of their environment? And how far are they keen to develop their own businesses?,After a literature review, a qualitative research was conducted among 12 women entrepreneurs of 19 to 51 years of age.,The results show a new kind of female entrepreneurship in the Arab region based on the support of the sociocultural environment, which is in contradiction with the literature. Also, it seems that Bahrain women are more in pull, not push situation to entrepreneurship. However, they need a role model to achieve their goals, which is new to the literature about women entrepreneurship in general and that in the developing countries in particular. As regards the obstacles, some Bahraini women seem to suffer from a lack of experience and knowledge in setting a business online. However, the results show that the companies of these women are mostly small and evolving in the service sector, with a trend in online businesses.,This study is limited by the number of persons interviewed, which does not allow the generalization of the results. Also, generalization to the whole region is not possible because each country of the GCC has its own rules and practices towards women. Also, this study has not investigated the attitude towards the risk and the balance between family and profession.,This paper is one of the few research studies on female entrepreneurship in Bahrain. The findings are in contradiction with the literature on women entrepreneurship in developing countries and more specifically in the GCC. This study offers many research perspectives and could help governmental and non-governmental institutions to empower and support women in their actions.

Psycho-attitudinal features: a study of female entrepreneurs in Saudi Arabia

Abstract: This paper aims to investigate psycho-attitudinal features in female entrepreneurs participating in micro, small and medium-sized enterprises in Saudi Arabia, using the Big Five model of personality traits and risk propensity. These attitudes, further grouped into three broad categories, namely, fixed, moderate and growth-oriented mindsets, are used to illustrate the collective impact of attitude over the entrepreneurial process.,The study is a quantitative study, using a survey to registered business owners and entrepreneurs operating in micro, small and medium businesses in Riyadh, Makkah and Eastern Province, three major administration areas of Saudi Arabia. Survey distribution was through the Chamber of Commerce located in each city. In total, 701 questionnaires were collected with 232 completed responses suitable for use in the study’s empirical findings. The overall response rate was 33 per cent.,The paper provides practical insights into gender-specific attitudes, including reported variance over the entrepreneurial process. It shows that attitude is an equally predominant feature for both genders through all business stages, with female entrepreneurs reporting a slightly higher growth-oriented attitude relative to their male counterparts. Overall, significant differences were noted between gender and business stages for five of the six-attitudinal growth subscales. From a policy perspective, noting the country’s plan for economic reform and desire for greater participation by women, there are important questions that arise concerning the impact of incentive devices and policy measures.,The main limitation of this study is in the number of women participants, which was small. As participation rates for women rise, there is a good opportunity for future analysis to extend this current study’s findings.,The research uses the Big Five model and risk propensity to explore the important role of attitude in female entrepreneurs. Noting the moderating influence of factors in the macro-environment and the pervasive impact of social norms on women, this study flags some implications for government and policymakers in formulating supportive policies to enable greater uptake by women entrepreneurs with growth-oriented mindsets.,This paper contributes to the literature on the role of gender-specific attitudes through the business stages. This paper presents original research on the attitudes of women in the context of Arabic society.

Different strokes for different folks: The job satisfaction of the self-employed and the intersection of gender and migration background

Abstract: Migrant enterprises comprise about 10 per cent of all enterprises in Germany and are therefore a crucial part of the German economy and its entrepreneurial ecosystems. Relatedly, migrant entrepreneurship is a highly recognized topic within political discussions as well as within entrepreneurship research. While there is already an impressive body of work regarding the nature and quality of migrant enterprises, many questions regarding the personal motives and satisfaction of migrant entrepreneurs still remain unanswered, particularly with regards to their job satisfaction. Thus, this study aims to address such questions regarding the job satisfaction of entrepreneurs with different backgrounds.,Using the German Socio-Economic Panel data set, the authors close this research gap by investigating the job satisfaction of migrant entrepreneurs in Germany compared with native entrepreneurs.,First generation migrants show, in general, less job satisfaction than the native population. Second generation male migrant entrepreneurs’ show less job satisfaction; however, this association is reversed for females: second generation female migrant entrepreneurs are more satisfied with their self-employment than their native counterparts.,These differing results lead to differing implications for policymakers who wish to create and develop entrepreneurial and labour market support for different target groups.

Female entrepreneurship in the Baltics: formal and informal context

Abstract: This paper aims to review female entrepreneurship in a (post) transition context, analysing its almost three-decade development in Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia. Little research has focussed to date on female entrepreneurship in the Baltic countries. Using an institutional perspective, this paper aims to explain the unique interplay of formal and informal contexts that have shaped the development of female entrepreneurship in (post-) transition contexts.,This paper is based on an institutional reading and analysis of secondary data: statistical data, international reports and previous studies on female entrepreneurs.,There are more than 130,000 female entrepreneurs in the Baltic countries who share many common features and challenges. While the formal entrepreneurship environment is considered to be very developed in the Baltic countries, women are under-represented among the population of entrepreneurs, and there is gender-based sectoral segregation of female entrepreneurs in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. This indicates a need to recognise the diversity of patterns in entrepreneurial development, reflecting different inheritances from the Soviet past and the inertial character of some informal institutions, not to mention the differences in the pace of change during the transition period following the Soviet era.,This research can be used for academics, professionals, researchers and policymakers working in the fields of small business and entrepreneurship. Its data can furthermore be used to develop evidence-based policy and actions that would foster the participation of women in entrepreneurship in Baltic countries.,So far, little research has focussed on female entrepreneurship in the Baltic countries. The paper attempts to investigate that Baltic countries with their history of emphasis on gender equality on one hand and the award-winning business and entrepreneurship system on the other hand demonstrate relatively low levels of women’s entrepreneurship. This paper aims to contribute to the field of entrepreneurship, illustrating how entrepreneurship is linked to its social context.

The role of export promotion programs in the internationalisation of female-owned enterprises

Abstract: While the role of government-funded export promotion programs (EPPs) on the international activities of small ventures has been previously documented, they do not appear to have been hitherto studied in a gendered context. This is unfortunate given the evidence suggesting growing numbers of female entrepreneurs with strong international orientation. Thus, this study aims to provide a better understanding of the experiences and practices of women entrepreneurs with regard to EPPs.,This study is based on personal interviews with eight female-owned international entrepreneurial ventures in the fashion design industry in Denmark. A qualitative research design was used to explore the experiences of the women entrepreneurs regarding different types of EPPs and their various providers, and the data were analysed and interpreted using the NVivo software program.,The results show that while the level of awareness of EPPs was generally high, the programs were overwhelmingly perceived to be overly expensive, excessively time-consuming, insufficiently specific and largely irrelevant. When the women business owners had availed themselves of their services, the usefulness of the EPPs was deemed to be largely imperceptible. Plausible explanations for these results may be found in the gendered entrepreneurial literature. The study’s findings provide important gendered insights to government support agencies charged with promoting the internationalisation of female-owned small businesses.,This study presents novel gendered findings of the experiences of female entrepreneurs regarding the role played by EPPs in the growth of their firms on international markets. It contributes to the literature on the growing phenomenon of female international entrepreneurs.

Capitalizing on women’s entrepreneurial alertness: The role of human, social and psychological capital

Abstract: The purpose of this study is to examine how human, social and psychological capital influences women’s entrepreneurial alertness and discover if these influences are moderated by job complexity.,This is a quantitative research study using a purposive sampling method where data are gathered from a self-report survey. The hypotheses are tested using a sample of 274 female middle managers using a hierarchical moderated regression analysis.,The results support that women’s human and psychological capital are positively related to each dimension of their entrepreneurial alertness, and that these relationships are moderated by job complexity. Results also indicate that women’s social capital is not related to their entrepreneurial alertness.,The most important limitation of this study is that it only considers women who work as middle managers in established firms without considering the specific responsibilities or duties that influence their entrepreneurial alertness and thus generalizability for other contexts may be limited.,The results show that entrepreneurial alertness represents a capability that can be learned and improved and may offer guidance to aspiring women middle managers in how to mindfully discover opportunities with business potential.,This study adds new empirical evidence that contributes to a better understanding of how women, within the context of established firms, enhance the occurrence of entrepreneurial behavior by being alert to entrepreneurial opportunities.

The efficacy of gender-based federal procurement policies in the United States

Abstract: Because procurement policies are one of the means of redressing discrimination and economic exclusion, the US Government has targeted 23 per cent of its annual half-trillion dollar spend to small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) and 5 per cent of its spend to women-owned businesses.,The research framework is informed by two theoretical paradigms, feminist empiricism and entrepreneurial feminism, and uses a secondary analysis of survey data of active federal contractors.,Empirical findings inform the extent to which certifications are associated with bid frequency and bid success. The results indicate that none of the various certifications increase either bid frequency or bid success. The findings are consistent with entrepreneurial feminism and call for federal accountability in contracting with women-owned supplier firms.,The findings are consistent with entrepreneurial feminism and call for federal accountability in contracting with women-owned supplier firms.,Recommendations include the need to review the impact of consolidated tenders on designated (as certified) SME vendors and to train procurement personnel about the economic contributions of women-owned businesses.,This research studies the efficacy of various certifications, with particular reference to that of women-owned, on the frequency with which SMEs bid on, and succeed in obtaining, US federal procurement contracts.