Showing papers in "Journal of Applied Sport Psychology in 2001"
TL;DR: In this article, an evidence-based, 7-point checklist that includes: physical, environmental, task, timing, learning, emotional, and perspective elements of imagery delivery highlighting the minimum requirement areas in which sport psyc...
Abstract: This paper supports the contention that the brain stores memories in the form of a central representation that is accessed by both physical preparation and execution and, more importantly, by motor imagery associated with this preparation and execution. Considerable evidence in support of shared central and vegetative structures suggests that sport psychologists should consider more closely aspects of the performer's responses to the physical skill when providing imagery interventions and not rely on “traditional,” more clinically orientated, methods of delivery. Many texts provide a schedule of factors and techniques for psychologists, athletes, and coaches to consider but with a limited theoretical explanation of why these factors are the crucial concerns. We, therefore, propose an evidence-based, 7-point checklist that includes: physical, environmental, task, timing, learning, emotional, and perspective elements of imagery delivery highlighting the minimum requirement areas in which sport psyc...
558 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined psychological factors of potential relevance to athletic flow experiences, and empirically examined the relationship between flow and optimal performance, and found that the positive relationship between a post-event flow assessment and performance criteria was obtained.
Abstract: The main purpose of this study was to examine psychological factors of potential relevance to athletic flow experiences. A secondary purpose was to empirically examine the relationship between flow and optimal performance. Understanding factors that may be associated with flow will help to make this optimal mental state more accessible to researchers and practitioners. Self-concept and use of psychological skills were predicted to be related to self-reported flow states. Competitive athletes across three sports completed dispositional assessments of athletic self-concept, psychological skills, and flow. The athletes also completed a post-event flow assessment, as well as other questions relating to their performance, after a specified competitive event. Positive relationships were found between flow and aspects of self-concept, and the relationships between flow and psychological skills use were also in the expected directions. In addition, the predicted positive relationship between a post-event flow assessment and performance criteria was obtained. This study builds on earlier research that has investigated antecedents of flow, and contributes to the expanding knowledge base of psychological factors related to optimal experience and performance.
367 citations
TL;DR: For instance, the authors found that experts set more specific goals, selected more technique-oriented strategies, made more strategy attributions, and displayed higher levels of self-efficacy than non-experts and novices.
Abstract: Basketball experts, non-experts, and novices were studied for differences in their self-regulatory forethought and self-reflection processes regarding their free-throw shooting. Forty-three adolescent boys participated individually in the study, which involved a practice session in a gymnasium. The subjects were queried regarding their forethought goals, strategy choice, self-efficacy as well as their self-reflection attributions and feelings of satisfaction as they practiced their shooting. Among the significant results, experts set more specific goals, selected more technique-oriented strategies, made more strategy attributions, and displayed higher levels of self-efficacy than non-experts and novices. Forethought phase processes intercorrelated significantly as did self-reflection phase processes. In addition, self-reflection attributions were predictive of forethought strategy selection during further efforts to learn. The results were discussed in terms of a social cognitive model of self-regulation.
330 citations
TL;DR: For example, the authors found that major factors perceived to have positively influenced performance included mental skills and preparation, attitude towards the Olympics, support services and support facilitation, multifaceted preparation, physical preparation, and coaching.
Abstract: To gain a better understanding of factors perceived to have positively and/or negatively influenced Olympic athlete performance and to examine differences in performance factors cited by athletes who met or exceeded performance expectations and athletes who failed to meet expectations, 8 Atlanta and 7 Nagano Olympians were interviewed. Interviews were conducted via telephone, tape recorded, transcribed, and content analyzed by three investigators. Major factors perceived to have positively influenced performance included mental skills and preparation, attitude towards the Olympics, support services and support facilitation, multifaceted preparation, physical preparation, and coaching. Major factors perceived to have negatively influenced performance included departing from normal routine, media distractions, coach issues, overtraining, and injury. The two groups, those who met or exceeded expectations and those who did not meet expectations, differed on only a few positive performance factors, including a...
303 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a meta-analytic review of the body image between athletes and non-athletes was conducted and a small effect was found which indicated that athletes had a more positive body image compared to the nonathletes.
Abstract: Due to the equivocal research examining body image between athletes and nonathletes and the serious negative effects of body image disturbance a metaanalytic review of the literature was undertaken (N = 78 studies, 294 effect sizes). A small effect was found which indicated that athletes had a more positive body image compared to the nonathletes. Examination of the moderator variables revealed that the magnitude of the effect size: (a) for unpublished research was larger compared to published research; (b) for comparison groups which were included within the study was smaller than for comparison groups based on normative data; (c) did not differ between the female athletes compared to the male athletes; (d) did not vary among the aesthetic, endurance, and ball game sport athletes; and (e) did not differ by age or body mass index. Possible explanations for the more positive body image of the athletes than the nonathletes are discussed.
227 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigated the sources of organizational stress in elite athletes and found that four main organizational stress issues were examined: environmental issues, personal issues, leadership issues, and team issues.
Abstract: This paper is an investigation of organizational stress in elite athletes. Fifteen elite athletes from the UK were interviewed with regard to potential sources of organizational stress in preparation for major international competitions. Four main organizational stress issues were examined: environmental issues, personal issues, leadership issues, and team issues. The main environmental issues that were revealed were: selection, the training environment, and finances. The main personal issues were: nutrition, injury, and goals and expectations. The main leadership issues revealed were: coaches, and coaching styles. The main team issues were: team atmosphere, support network, roles, and communication. The results are presented largely in the form of direct quotes to convey the intricate nature of the issues. The results are discussed in terms of the important practical and theoretical implications of organizational stress in elite sport, particularly for those researchers and practitioners who wish to gain...
208 citations
TL;DR: The authors examined whether the intrinsic motivation levels of first-year college athletes changed from pre- to post-season as a function of their scholarship status or their perceptions of their coaches' behavior.
Abstract: This study examined whether the intrinsic motivation levels of first-year college athletes changed from pre- to post-season as a function of their scholarship status or their perceptions of their coaches' behavior. Division I college athletes ( N = 72) completed questionnaires assessing their intrinsic motivation at the beginning and end of their first year of participation. They also reported their scholarship status and their perceptions of their coaches' behaviors over the season. Contrary to predictions, results revealed that neither scholarship status nor time affected the athletes' level of intrinsic motivation. Strong support for the relationship between athletes' perceptions of their coaches' behavior and changes in athletes' level of intrinsic motivation over the season, however, emerged. Increases in athletes' level of intrinsic motivation were associated with athletes' perceptions that their coaches exhibited high frequencies of training and instruction behavior, and low frequencies of autocrat...
146 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors explored the relationship between imagery type and confidence, and two possible moderating variables, skill level of the athlete and sport type, and found that imagery related to strategies of the game accounted for a significant proportion of the variance in sport confidence.
Abstract: Martin, Moritz, and Hall's (1999) applied mental imagery model was developed to provide an organizational framework to guide future imagery usage research and application. The present study explores 2 aspects of the applied model: the relationship between imagery type and confidence, and 2 possible moderating variables, skill level of the athlete and sport type. One hundred and twenty-three female county netball players participated in the study; 55 from a low standard county and 68 from a high standard county. Participants were administered the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ). One week later, at a county netball match, the State Sport Confidence Inventory (SSCI) was administered. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses showed that in the lower standard sample, mastery imagery and imagery related to strategies of the game accounted for a significant proportion of the variance in sport confidence. Additionally, imagery related to the emotions of playing predicted confidence negatively. With th...
144 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined athletic identity, coping skills, and social support as moderators of mood disturbance and physical self-esteem with the occurrence of injury in recreational participants, and found that individuals' satisfaction with their social support network was significantly related to mood disturbance with increased satisfaction leading to lower levels of mood disorder.
Abstract: The purpose of the present investigation was to examine athletic identity, coping skills, and social support as moderators of mood disturbance and physical self-esteem with the occurrence of injury in recreational participants. Thirty participants, who sustained an injury that prohibited physical activity for at least 6 weeks, completed a battery of questionnaires including measures of social support (Sarason, Levine, Basham, & Sarason, 1983), coping skills (Smith, Smoll, & Ptacek, 1990), athletic identity (Brewer, Van Raalte, & Linder, 1993), mood state (McNair, Lorr, & Droppleman, 1971), and physical self-esteem (Fox & Corbin, 1989). Results from multiple regression analysis revealed that individuals' satisfaction with their social support network was significantly related to mood disturbance with increased satisfaction leading to lower levels of mood disturbance. No other relationships were significant. Results are discussed within the context of cognitive appraisal models of adjustment in ord...
119 citations
TL;DR: The authors found that the criteria used to evaluate failure and success are sufficiently distinct to suggest that perceived perceptions of failure should not be thought of as a bipolar phenomenon, and that the consequences of failure are used to form multidimensional models of fear of failure and failure.
Abstract: Fears of failure and success are widely regarded as salient threats to performance in a variety of domains yet scientific understanding of these constructs is still in its infancy. Sixteen elite athletes and performing artists participated in in-depth interviews to shed light on the nature of the cognitive-motivational-relational appraisals associated with these fears. Results revealed distinct criteria for evaluations of failure and success, as well as the perceived consequences of failure and success. It was concluded that the criteria used to evaluate failure and success are sufficiently distinct to suggest that perceptions of failure and success should not be thought of as a bipolar phenomenon. The consequences of failure and success were used to form multidimensional models of fear of failure and fear of success.
102 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors analyzed the temporal and contextual organization of coach-athlete interactions in elite archery competitions and found that the coach's course of action was characterized by respect for the athletes' autonomy.
Abstract: This study analyzed the temporal and contextual organization of coach-athlete interactions in elite archery competitions. In light of the course of action theoretical framework (Theureau, 1992) from ergonomics research, action was conceived as situated (i.e., closely linked to ecological constraints) and was studied at the level at which it is significant for the actor. One expert archery coach and four elite athletes were observed and videotaped during two competitions. The coach's and athletes' verbalizations were also recorded during self-confrontation interviews immediately after each competition. Data processing consisted of: (a) transcribing the coach's and athletes' actions, communication, and self-confrontation data; (b) decomposing action into elementary units of meaning; (c) identifying coherence and similarities of sequences; and (d) examining the coordination of the courses of action of the coach and athlete. The coach's course of action was characterized by respect for the athletes' autonomy,...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors used guided imagery techniques and pacing breathing to change psychological and physiological arousal and found significant increases in strength performance when arousal was high and experienced as pleasant excitement in the paratelic condition (i.e., high positive arousal).
Abstract: Optimal arousal models contend that high arousal contributes to inhibited athletic performance, whereas there is reversal theory research which indicates that high positive arousal may enhance performance. To test these claims, 22 male and 6 female elite athletes were induced into high arousal telic (goal-directed) and high arousal paratelic (non goal-directed, process focussed) motivational states and tested on a standard hand strength task. Personalized guided imagery techniques and paced breathing were used to change psychological and physiological arousal. Significant increases in strength performance occurred when arousal was high and experienced as pleasant excitement in the paratelic condition (i.e., high positive arousal). Heart rate and other indicators of parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system activity were not found to mediate between psychological arousal and performance. Where athletic performance requires maximal motor strength over a short period, performance benefits of high arousal may be maximized by restructuring motivational state.
TL;DR: Wollman et al. as mentioned in this paper examined the effects of hypnosis on flow states and golf-putting performance in 5 competitive players and found that all participants increased both their mean golf putting performance and their mean flow scores from baseline to intervention.
Abstract: This study examined the effects of hypnosis on flow states and golf-putting performance in 5 competitive players. The investigation utilized an ideographic singlesubject multiple baseline across subjects design combined with a procedure that monitors the internal experience of the participants (Wollman, 1986). The method of intervention utilized in this study involved hypnotic induction, hypnotic regression, and trigger control procedures. The results indicated that all 5 participants increased both their mean golf putting performance and their mean flow scores from baseline to intervention. There were no overlapping data points between the baseline and intervention for either performance or flow state. Additionally, each participant indicated that they had felt the intervention was useful in keeping them relaxed, confident, and focused. Three of the golfers also reported experiencing reduced concerns about performing and more control over their putting stroke.
TL;DR: In this article, the effects of hypnosis on set-and jump-shooting performance among male collegiate basketball players were investigated and the results indicated that all three participants increased their mean jump-and set-shot performance from baseline to intervention, with all participants returning to baseline levels of performance postintervention phase.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of hypnosis on set- and jump-shooting performance among male collegiate basketball players. A single-subject ABA research design combined with a procedure that monitors the internal experience of the participants (Wollman, 1986) was implemented. The results indicated that all three participants increased their mean jump- and set- shooting performance from baseline to intervention, with all three participants returning to baseline levels of performance postintervention phase. Finally, each participant reported they had felt the intervention had increased sensations they associated with peak performance. These results support the hypothesis that a hypnosis intervention can improve jump- and set-shooting performance and increase feelings and cognitions that are associated with peak performance.
TL;DR: In this paper, the Expectations About Sport Psychology Consulting (EASPC) questionnaire was administered to 111 athletes (64 male and 47 female) and 166 nonathletes (72 male and 94 female) attending an NCAA Division I university.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to explore expectations of athletes and nonathletes about sport psychology consulting. Tinsley's (1982) Expectations About Coun-seling-Brief form was revised using sport psychology terms. The revised instrument, Expectations About Sport Psychology Consulting (EASPC) questionnaire, was administered to 111 athletes (64 male and 47 female) and 166 nonathletes (72 male and 94 female) attending an NCAA Division I university. Confirmatory factor analysis showed that the data fit the hypothesized 3-factor model (i.e., personal commitment, facilitative conditions, and consultant expertise). A 2 (College Sport Participation) 2 (Gender) MANOVA and follow-up discriminant function analyses revealed that females had higher expectancies of personal commitment than did males whereas males believed that consultants were more directive and more capable of solving problems quickly than did females. No significant differences were obtained between athletes and their peers. The results ...
TL;DR: This paper examined the nature of personal incentives, sense of self, and perceived options of basketball and cross-country athletes via semi-structured interviews, and found that socially-oriented personal incentives and sense-of-self components were more prevalent for the basketball athletes than for the crosscountry athletes.
Abstract: Goal perspective research in the sport setting has primarily focused on task and ego goal orientations, while failing to address the influence of social goals (eg, Urdan & Maehr, 1995) Maehr and Braskamp's (1986) personal investment theory allows researchers to examine achievement motivation from a multidimensional perspective that incorporates social factors of motivation Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine the nature of the personal incentives, sense of self, and perceived options (Maehr & Braskamp, 1986) of basketball and cross-country athletes via semi-structured interviews Results from content analyses revealed that athletes defined positive and negative experiences through task-, ego-, and socially-oriented personal incentives as well as sense of self and perceived options components Socially-oriented personal incentives and sense of self components were more prevalent for the basketball athletes than for the cross-country athletes Notable sport group differences suggest t
TL;DR: For example, this article found that coaches employed goal setting extensively for both individual and team goals in practice and competition, and that the primary function of goals was to provide direction and focus.
Abstract: The purpose of the present investigation was to assess the perceptions of coaches regarding the process of goal setting using a qualitative methodology. Participants were 14 NCAA collegiate coaches from the American Midwest representing both team and individual sports. All participants were head coaches and were asked to respond to the interview questions in relation to their current head coaching position. Results revealed that coaches employed goal setting extensively for both individual and team goals in practice and competition. In addition, many interesting findings regarding the process of goal setting emerged including (a) coaches tended to set short-term goals although there were some nebulous longterm goals; (b) coaches only inconsistently wrote down their goals; (c) goals were both dictated by coaches and set in collaboration with players with a focus on collaboration; (d) the primary function of goals was to provide direction and focus; (e) goal commitment was related to enjoyment/fun; (f) process, performance, and outcome goals were set but coaches focused on performance and outcome goals; and (g) physical, psychological, and time barriers impeded goal attainment. These findings are discussed in relation to the current empirical/theoretical goal-setting literature and suggestions for best practice by sport psychology researchers are offered.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined the degree to which the sport competition anxiety test (SCAT) and the sport anxiety scale (SAS) shared variance with the four subscales of the Collegiate Hockey Worry Scale (CHWS), a sport-specific measure of athletes' dispositional tendencies to worry about performance failure, negative social evaluation, physical danger, and situational uncertainty.
Abstract: This study examined the degree to which the Sport Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT; Martens, 1977) and the Sport Anxiety Scale (SAS; Smith, Smoll, & Schutz, 1990) shared variance with the four subscales of the Collegiate Hockey Worry Scale (CHWS; Dunn, 1999)a sport-specific measure of athletes' dispositional tendencies to worry about performance failure, negative social evaluation, physical danger, and situational uncertainty. Participants were 178 male intercollegiate ice hockey players. Correlation and regression analyses reinforced the links between worries about failure and negative social evaluation to competitive trait anxiety (CTA). However, neither the SCAT nor the SAS shared more than 5.8% of the variance surrounding athletes' worries pertaining to physical danger and situational uncertainty. Findings are discussed in the context of Martens, Vealey, and Burtons' (1990) recommendation to develop instruments with separate subscales measuring different situational components of CTA.
TL;DR: The Carolina sport confidence inventory (CSCI) as discussed by the authors is a measure of sport confidence developed by the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, which is based on expectation and efficacy theories.
Abstract: Expectancy and efficacy theories provide the foundation for the development of a measure of sport confidence. The Carolina Sport Confidence Inventory (CSCI) was conceptualized as a three-factor model represented by dispositional optimism, perceived competence, and perceived control. Two independent studies supported a two factor (dispositional optimism and perceived competence) 13- item model for the CSCI. The first study utilized exploratory factor analytic techniques, concurrent validity, social desirability assessment, internal consistency, and test-retest reliability to establish the psychometric properties of the CSCI. Study II employed confirmatory factor analytic techniques with a sample of 123 intercollegiate varsity athletes along with measures of convergent validity to provide further support for the two factor model and the psychometric properties of the instrument.
TL;DR: In this paper, the effect of resistance exercise of different workloads on subsequent psychological states was examined, where participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups: (a) low workload resistance exercise (50% of 1RM), (b) high workload resistance exercises (80% of RM), or (c) a no exercise control.
Abstract: This experiment was designed to examine the effect of resistance exercise of different workloads on subsequent psychological states. Participants, 54 undergraduate students (34 male, 20 female), were randomly assigned to one of three groups: (a) low workload resistance exercise (50% of 1 RM), (b) high workload resistance exercise (80% of 1RM), or (c) a no exercise control. Resistance exercise consisted of three sets of five repetitions for three free-weight exercises: the bench press, overhead press, and dumbbell row. Psychological state was indicated by the Exercise-Induced Feeling States Inventory (Gauvin & Rejeski, 1993) and was assessed prior to exercise and at 10, 25, and 40 min post exercise. Data were analyzed via a 3 (group) x 4 (time) ANOVA with repeated measures on the second factor. All exercise participants experienced an increased sense of revitalization, which persisted for a greater extent in low rather than high workload participants. None of the groups reported changes over time in positi...