Showing papers in "Journal of Biosocial Science in 1972"

An investigation of the age at menopause

Abstract: Data from a representative sample of 736 women aged 45–54 living in or near London in 1965 were analysed with respect to menopausal status and median and mean age at menopause (final menses). The median age at the natural menopause was 50·78 years. The validity of the measures used and the reliability of the data in this and previous studies are discussed. The conclusions are reached that median age of menopause is a more valid measurement than mean age and that there is no conclusive evidence of an increase in the age at menopause over the last century. The data also indicate understatement of the age at the last menstrual period (LMP) by women, with increasing lapse of time.The menopause was found to occur markedly later in currently married women than in unmarried or previously married women. When marital status was controlled by considering currently married women only, increased parity was shown to be related to a late menopause among women of higher socio-economic status, but not among those of lower socio-economic status. There was no notable association between the menopause and early or late menarche and socio-economic status.

Seasonal variation in births in rural East Pakistan

Abstract: An analysis of the monthly distribution of births in two areas of Matlab Thana, East Pakistan, indicates that there is a seasonal variation in births different from what would be expected by chance. The highest proportion of births occur in the last three months of a year and the lowest proportion between May and July. Investigation into some of the environmental and social factors which might contribute to the seasonal pattern revealed the following: mean minimum monthly temperature 9 months before birth was inversely related to the number of births; all occupations had seasonal patterns different from what would be expected by chance and the business and mill-and-office occupations had distributions significantly different from each other; the distribution of births for all pregnancy orders was different from chance and the distribution for first order pregnancies was significantly different from those for third and fourth or higher orders.

Age at marriage and family size: social causation and social selection hypotheses.

Abstract: Relationships between family size and age at marriage are explored using family size figures from England and Wales. 2 hypotheses 2 postulating a casual relation between age at marriage and family size and the other suggesting a spurious association between the 2 factors are examined in the light of the variables affecting family size. These variables length of family building period fecundity patterns of sexual intercourse and use of contraceptives are discussed in detail. While figures show those marrying before age 20 have 1 more child than those marrying at the ages 25-29 no single relationship between the age of marriage and number of children has been established. Evidence indicates efficent fertility control is less likely at earlier ages. Further data taking into account the complex interrelationships involved is needed before differentials in fertility by age are explained.

The Hull family survey. II. Family planning in the first 5 years of marriage.

Abstract: Of 350 couples married in Hull in 1965-66 and interviewed shortly after marriage for their views on family size and birth spacing 312 were available for reinterview to compare initial intentions with fertility experience during the first 5 years of marriage (1970-71). There was a downward revision in intended family size (2.61 children first interview 2.23 reinterview) and a dissappearance of correlates of differences in fertility intention (occupation length of education of husband diminished effect of religion). Upward revaluations were due primarily to unintentional over-achievement. Birth intervals were shorter than intended. 93% had used contraceptives; 52.8% before first pregnancy 75.4% before second. 3 contraceptive methods were employed: condom (59%) pill (48%) and withdrawal (41%). Social profiles of users of the various contraceptives were outlined. 2/3 of the pregnancies were planned. Results demonstrate that family planning attitudes and actual behavior can be viewed as rational except in the area of risk taking by a large number of contraceptive users a part that requires more study.

Is there a relationship between childlessness and marriage breakdown

Abstract: The common belief that childlessness is positively associated with instability of marriage derives from official statistics which appear to show higher divorce rates for childless than for fertile couples. The official findings are a procedural artifact, however, and the relationship shown is certainly exaggerated and possibly spurious.The appropriate strategy in determining whether divorcees are relatively infertile is to find a population with disrupted marriages and measure its fertility experience. In doing so it is necessary to take note of the definition of fertility, the remarriage factor, and (most importantly) the duration of marriage. The official statistics use the conception of legal duration of marriage. Since this ignores separation before divorce, its use exaggerates the infertility of divorcees, as does failure to exclude remarriages. De facto duration of marriage (wedding to separation) is a superior statement of opportunity to conceive, and calculations on this basis eliminate or even reverse the fertility differential between divorcing and stable couples. Local figures are used to illustrate this effect, and the finding is supported by evidence from a sample of marriages ending in legal proceedings lesser than divorce. It is concluded that the alleged relationship between childlessness and instability of marriage is probably either non-existent or the reverse of that normally assumed, and that in any case measurement of the net overall effect of childlessness does not provide a helpful datum. An alternative strategy of research is suggested, which would seek patterns of effect rather than net overall effect, taking heed of relevant variables, and also considering all forms of marital breakdown including marriages in which cohabitation continues only with disharmony.

An epidemiological study of schizophrenia.

Abstract: This report is based on the findings of an epidemiological study of 29,468 rural, semi-rural and urban inhabitants of the Agra region of Uttar Pradesh. The survey was made in order to find out the prevalence of severe mental disorders and associated conditions in an Indian community. The sampling was purposive and areas selected were contiguous. Census methods were used. All inhabitants were investigated by a team consisting of a psychologist, a statistician, social workers and psychiatrists. After reconnaissance and initial contact by home visits, suspected cases were detected by a searching inquiry and the information so obtained was carefully documented. These cases were subjected to psychiatric examination and abnormal ones identified. Consultation with another psychiatrist was necessary to make a final diagnosis.The lifetime prevalence rate of schizophrenia was 2·2 per thousand, about the same frequency as found in other parts of the world. The maximum number of cases occurred in males between the ages of 15 and 24 and in females between the ages of 35 and 44. Single people, that is, never married, widowed, divorced or separated suffered significantly much more from the disease than bachelors and married people. A significant relationship was found between schizophrenia and castes in Vaish and Brahmin males as compared with others. The highest rate of schizophrenia was found among people in unremunerative status. Intoxicants were used more by schizophrenics than by normal people. Caste group indulgents had their own preferences in drug use, cannabis indulgence being highest among Brahmins. No association of schizophrenia with residence, educational status or sex was found.

Coital rates and dizygotic twinning

Abstract: There is some evidence, mostly of an epidemiological nature, that coital rates may be positively associated with dizygotic twinning. It is suggested that this link is causal, in which case an explanation becomes available for some curious—and hitherto unexplained—features of dizygotic twinning rates by maternal age and legitimacy.

Skin pigmentation and assortative mating in Sikhs.

Abstract: Analysis of skin pigmentation, by reflectance spectrophotometry at standard wavelengths, of husband/wife pairs of Sikhs living in Britain shows positive correlations between spouses in pigmentation of forehead, but not of inner upper arm. Several possible explanations are considered, the most likely appearing to be positive assortative mating in respect to exposed pigmentation.

Periodicity of sexual desire in relation to time of ovulation in women.

Abstract: A review of several studies attempting to determine the existence of a period of increased sexual desire during the menstrual cycle and its relationship to ovulation indicates that peaks have been reported prior to menstruation and after menstruation; studies on sexually inactive women report peaks at midcycle. Terminological ambiguities regarding sexual desires are partly responsible for differences in the various studies reviewed. Psychological and social factors and physical factors (such as an increased amount of mucus in the vagina during the follicular phase increased congestion in pelvic tissues during the luteal phase and hormonal variations) and research methodology (some studies requiring sexual abstinence for certain lengths of time) are also responsible for variations in results. Coitus-induced ovulation has also been suggested by studies on rape victims and by rat experiments. Sexual desire may differ during the luteal and follicular phases preferences may differ among women regarding the phases and consequently what they experience (and define) as sexual desire may vary accordingly. Alterations in desire may be caused by contraceptive methods the rhythm method forcing suppression of desire during the follicular phase and the progesterone in oral pills causing enhancement in the luteal phase or suppression of desire because of the lack of follicular phase.

Knowledge, practice and effectiveness of contraception in Belgium.

Abstract: Based on the 1966 national survey of fecundity and fertility conducted by the Population and Family Study Centre of the Ministry of Public Health and the Family an investigation was undertaken of the knowledge practice and effectiveness of contraception in Belgium. General lack of knowledge poor practice most frequent use of the least effective methods and strong inhibitions expressed by respondents indicate a sexually unsatisfying life resulting in a poor situation for responsible parenthood. There is a tremendous need for thorough information on the diversity and effectiveness of contraceptive methods. High education level and social status urban environment and low level of religious activity were associated with use of the more complex and effective methods of contraception.

Study of applicants for abortion at the Royal Northern Hospital, London

Abstract: In the second and third quarters of 1970, 155 women applied for abortion to two of the three consultant gynaecologists at the Royal Northern Hospital, London. Of the applicants, 100 were single, forty-two married and thirteen widowed, divorced or separated (WDS). The single women came disproportionately from larger than average families, and fifty-eight were from broken or unhappy homes. Of the total sample, 39% were Church of England and 30% Roman Catholic. By occupation, the largest group was of semi-skilled or unskilled workers (thirty-seven) and the smallest one of professional women (seven). Less than half were Britishborn and one-third were from the Commonwealth. More than half had never attempted to use any method of contraception. The 155 patients between them had had fourteen previous abortions and twenty-five illegitimate children. Of the 155 women, seventy-one single, twenty-three married and eight WDS obtained an abortion, this proportion of single women being considerably higher than the national average. So also was the proportion of women in the age range 20–34 years. Slightly more women who were Britishborn and C of E by religion obtained abortion than were represented in the sample as a whole. A number of clinic and hospital details were recorded, such as stage of pregnancy at first hospital interview and at abortion, delay in securing hospital appointment and bed. A follow-up, about 18 months later, showed that nearly all the women were glad they had had an abortion; very few had experienced serious depression, feelings of guilt or religious problems afterwards. Most of the women who needed it were now using birth control, mostly the pill. Three patients became pregnant again within a year of their termination. One had a miscarriage and one (a schoolgirl) had a second termination. The third applied for a second abortion, but was refused. Fifty-three women, approximately one-third, did not have a hospital abortion, but only fifteen of these were categorically refused; the others had spontaneous or private abortions, changed their minds after interview or failed to appear for the operation. Of the fifteen, seven were refused because the pregnancy was too far advanced. Two girls were refused because they had had previous unwanted pregnancies, but had not used contraception on this occasion; one of these was 19 years old and already had had two abortions and an illegitimate baby. The remaining six were refused for various reasons. Some general conclusions are drawn from the survey and some recommendations made.

Lactation patterns in Egyptian women. II. Chemical composition of milk during the first year of lactation.

Abstract: The composition of human milk during the first year of lactation was studied. The effect of age, parity and the length of inter-delivery interval on the composition is described. Of the three parameters, the length of inter-delivery intervals was the most important, while the other two were weakly correlated. (Summary in Arabic, p. 409.)

Lactation patterns in Egyptian women. I. Milk yield during the first year of lactation.

Abstract: The milk yield in a group of 238 women who delivered normally at the Maternity Section of Al Azhar University Hospital in Cairo Egypt was estimated during the first 12 postpartum months in an effort to obtain a base line of information regarding variations in the quantity and chemical composition of milk during the 1st year of lactation. Overall the milk yield increased significantly from the 2nd month onwards. The increase continued at a slow pace and reached its maximum at the 7th month followed by a gradual decrease up to the 12th month of lactation. The mothers aged 21-30 years produced a better yield than mothers in the 18-20 or the 30 and older age group. The best yield was given by women with a parity of 2-4 and the longest of the inter-delivery intervals was also associated with a better yield.

Cycle day of ovulation

Abstract: Together 7 sets of reported data comprise 892 cases of successful si ngle inseminations which are considered the criterion of ovulation. Est imated ovulation day was plotted agains mean cycle length rather than cu rrent actual cycle length. The postovulatory phase seems to increase in definitely with mean cycle length. The basal body temperature (BBT) test depends on the thermogenic action of progesterone produced by the corpus luteum formed after ovulation therefore the test signals late. The Farris test detects pituitary gonadotropins which provoke ovulation so the test signals early. The timing of ovulation within a cycle of a given length depends on whether that length is typical of the woman concerned. In data reported 4.9% of all women have some cycles of 35 days or more. Only 3.5% have such a mean cycle length. The postovulato ry phases of unexpectedly long cycles are shorter than those that occur in expected long cycles of similar length. Probably the most fertile day lies between estimates made from successful inseminations based on a late test and those based on an early test. The most fertile day is the one before midcycle. A rhythm method to avoid conception should consider the duration of a womans shortest and longest of her last 13 cycles. The unsafe days in the current cycle then last from 4 days before the estimated most fertile day to 3 days after. A calendar rhyth m formula is given as follows: If x represents the shortest and y the longest cycle the unsafe days start on Day (1/2x -5) and last for (y - x + 8) days.

A cohort approach to the study of population growth in Australia.

Abstract: The patterns of growth of various components in the populations of selected cohorts in Australia are compared with the corresponding information for selected calendar years. The use of three-dimensional diagrams demonstrates essential differences between the age structures for cohorts and those for the entire population and shows the way in which the two can be related. This study indicates that tracing of persons through their lifetimes in this way can lead to a greater understanding of trends in calendar year populations, as well as providing a closer link between the historical viewpoint and statistical analysis. This approach is of particular importance in Australia where the pattern and timing of demographic events have produced interesting differences between trends in cohort age structures and calendar year populations.

A survey of contraceptive markets in four African countries.

Abstract: Some of the findings of a detailed contraceptive market survey of Nigeria Ghana Uganda and Kenya in November-December 1970 and March 1971 as a prelude to a larger contraceptive test-marketing experiment are presented. Sales statistics and marketing practices for various contraceptives were obtained by interviewing the principal distributors in each country; sales figures were cross-checked with manufacturers agents. Market estimates of competing manufactureres importers and distributors were found to be totally unreliable varying by as much as 300%. Retailers saw contraceptives as commercially attractive fast-moving items but all felt the market for all contraceptives especially condoms was hampered by erratic and poor distribution. The findings indicate that commercial distribution of contraceptives exceeds public sector activities in Nigeria Ghana and Uganda but not in Kenya. The private and public sectors seem to serve different communities; e.g. the commercial sector serves the affluent urban elites and expatriate communities who can afford retail prices while local family planning programs with free or nominally priced contraceptives serve the poorer members of the society. It is concluded that now is the time to raise the research levels in family planning in developing areas to include all aspects of contraceptive marketing including the commercial sector. (AUTHORS MODIFIED)

Use of FPA clinics in a London borough.

Abstract: 645 women (ages 15-45+ 76% under 30 years; 36% having no live births) were first attenders at a family planning clinic in a London borough from December 1968-May 1969. They were studied retrospectively to determine if discrepancies existed between the social class distribution of first attenders and that of the borough. Patients were divided according to occupation of husband or consort and the Registrar Generals Classification of Occupations was used to allocate social class. Household Composition Table 34 from the 1966 10% Sample Census gave a population for comparison with the clinics. The social class of the borough population was shown to be similar to population served by the clinic. Changes in contraceptive practices were also studied for this period. 2/3 of the patients were given the pill at first visit with use inversely proportional to age. These patients tended to continue with this method. 1/3 were divided between the IUD and the diaphragm with use increasing with age at first attendance. 11% of diaphragm users changed to the pill in the first year. 21% attended clinic only once and under separate study but this was shown to be due to factors outside the control of the clinic.

Psychosexual development in twins.

Abstract: Using a small sample of monozygotic and same-sex dizygotic twins, estimates of the heritability of certain parameters of sexual development were obtained. In the majority of instances significant values of h2 were found, suggesting that genetic factors play an important role in psychosexual development. The significance of these results is discussed in the light of current pro-environmental attitudes.

The altered seasons of death in America.

Abstract: The seasonal distribution of deaths in the United States has progressively altered since 1940. The proportion of deaths in the first half of the year has declined. During the 1940s there were 7·44% more deaths in the first half than in the second half of the year, but during the 1960s the difference was only 4·85%. The continuous shift in the seasonal distribution of the crude death rates from all causes is in association with a similar movement in the monthly fertility rates of the United States.

Economic worth of preventing death at different ages in developing countries.

Abstract: Public health programmes in less developed countries lack the resources to care for more than a very small fraction of their populations. Medical care is allocated almost by accident, with those living near a clinic usually obtaining the best care. Preferably, such care should be rationed among people according to a more explicit and justifiable criterion, and such a criterion could have an economic basis. Economically, it is more important to prevent the premature death of some persons than others, depending upon education, sex and age. Considering the age element only, preventing the death of a man of age 30 is ordinarily more worthwhile to his national economy than preventing the death of a young child of 5 years. In fact every living person, depending on age, typically has a present capitalized value to the economy. This is based on his expected marginal additions to national output and his expected average subtractions as a consumer from it. These expected production and consumption streams should be discounted at a rate comparable to the marginal productivity of capital in the economy. Sample calculations of such present values indicate that infants typically have negative values at time of birth. Hence a marginal reduction in births through limited birth control expenditures is economically desirable.

Sexual behavior of Rhodesian Africans.

Abstract: The results of a survey on the sexual habits of 135 Rhodesian Africa n men living in the Salisbury area are presented. The overall incidence of venereal disease was 21-25%. 63% of the men interviewed were aware of family planning methods but only 25% completely agreed with its practice. 62.5% and 44.7% of the bachelors with a college education or a primary education respectively approved of family planning methods while only 26.4% and 15.8% respectively of the married men favored family planning. Financial political and religious reasons along with health and an unwillingness to interfere with nature were the major reasons given for not practiciing family planning. Oral contraceptives were the most commonly used contraceptive method. The reported average frequentcy of intercourse was 2.1 times a day; for bachelors it averaged 2.8 times a "date". However this last figure may be misleading since the interval between dates varied from 2 to 9 days. 90% of the married men reported they had sexual intercourse at night while most of the bachelors had sexual intercourse when it was opportune. 22% of the married men claimed they had extramarital affairs. The average age at first intercourse was 18 for men and 16.8 for their partners. Coitus did not normally exceed 5 minutes for 76% of the men. 57% of all respondents stated they always experienced orgasm. The male superior-female supine position for coitus was favored by 66% of the men. The most commonly used aphrodisiacs were of plant origin.

Demographic factors in attitudes towards population growth and control

Abstract: Using two Gallup polls, which together contained three questions on the attitudes of adult Americans towards population growth and control, a multivariate analysis was conducted of the relationship to each question of nine demographic factors: age, city size, education, family income, occupation of the household head, race, region, religion and sex. Only education and religion showed an intrinsic relationship with attitudes. Specifically, the extent of endorsement of the view that the world population growth rate is a serious problem, and of the view that population limitation will, at some time, be necessary, increased with education. Among those whose family income was at least $10,000 and those whose house-hold head was a professional or business executive, Protestants were more likely than Catholics to view US and world population growth rates as serious and to consider population limitation necessary.

Family study in sickle cell disease in Nigeria.

Abstract: A pilot survey has been made of Nigerian families at risk of producing SS haemoglobin homozygotes. Genotypes of parents and off-spring were investigated in twenty-five families. There is a suggestion that more SS children are produced where the first born suffers from haemoglobin SS disease. Mortality among offspring was higher in the study population than in the general population.

Clinical trial with continuous low dosage (0-5 mg) chlormadinone acetate.

Abstract: The contraceptive effectiveness of continuous low-dose chlormadinone acetate (.5 mg) was studied in 200 women over 1512 cycles. 73.4% of the cycles were of normal duration while 8.2% were shorter than 21 days and 5.6% were longer than 35 days. About 33% of the patients were completely free of irregular cycles. The duration and intensity of menstrual flow were unchanged in most cases. Breakthrough bleeding occurred in 3.8% of the cycles. 49% of the patients complained of side effects but these occured in only 18.6% of the cycles. Side effects were more common in the first 3 months of use than during the later months (42.5% compared to 27.5%). Nausea dizziness headache backache abdominal pain leukorrhea leg pain and weakness were the most common side effects. 14% of the patients discontinued use because of side effects primarily related to menstruation. 6 pregnancies resulted from patient failure while no pregnancies were attributable to method failure. Alteration of the cervical mucus may partially explain the contraceptive effect of the drug. It appears that chlormadinone acetate produces fewer physiological changes than do conventional oral contraceptives.