Showing papers in "Journal of Gambling Studies in 1996"

Estimating the prevalence of adolescent gambling disorders: A quantitative synthesis and guide toward standard gambling nomenclature.

Abstract: This article reviews the extant published and unpublished studies that estimate the prevalence of adolescent gambling problems in North America. The nine nonduplicative studies identified by our literature search included data collected from more than 7700 adolescents from five different regions of the United States and Canada. In addition to comparing the conceptual and methodological differences that exist among these studies, this article employed a meta-analytic strategy to synthesize prevalence estimates from the existing studies. This analysis revealed that within a 95 percent confidence interval, between 9.9% and 14.2% of adolescents are at risk of developing or returning to serious gambling problems. Similarly, between 4.4% and 7.4% of adolescents exhibit seriously adverse compulsive or pathological patterns of gambling activity. Finally, the discussion proposes a generic multi-level classification scheme to reconcile the divergent classification methods and data reporting strategies. This new multi-level approach to reporting gambling prevalence will facilitate interstudy comparisons among existing estimates of gambling prevalence and help to provide a general data reporting system for future research.

The New Zealand national survey of problem and pathological gambling.

Abstract: In New Zealand, awareness of gambling-related problems has increased in association with the legalization of new forms of gambling. This paper presents the methods and selected results from a national survey of gambling and problem gambling completed in New Zealand in 1991. While the primary aim of the study was to determine the extent of problem gambling in New Zealand, the study included a second phase intended to assess the validity and reliability of the widely-used South Oaks Gambling Screen as well as to examine other aspects of problematic involvement in gambling. The results of the two-phase study in New Zealand show that problem gamblers in different countries are remarkably similar in demographic terms as well as with regard to other risk factors associated with problematic gambling involvement. The New Zealand study of problem gambling points the way toward important research topics that will require further exploration in the future.

Gambling on the internet: A brief note

Abstract: With the number of online computer users more than doubling over the past two years, it has been alleged that social pathologies are beginning to surface in cyberspace (e.g. Griffiths, 1995a; 1996a). The internet is currently under mass expansion and it is estimated that, there are over 30 million people current users. Studies of the internet, its users and their potential excesses should therefore be of psychological concern not least of all because of its sudden growth and heightened public awareness. It should also be of interest to those of us who research into gambling because there is now an abundance of virtual gambling sites proliferating the internet (e.g. The Global Casino, Virtual Vegas, The House of Hazard, The Fox Casino). For some time I have been carrying out research in to the area of \"technological addictions\" (Griffiths, 1995a; b). Technological addictions are operationally defined as non-chemical (behavioural) addictions which involve human-machine interaction. They can either be passive (e.g. television) or active (e.g. computer games) and usually contain inducing and reinforcing features which may contribute to the promotion of addictive tendencies. There is little in the way of an established academic literature on technological addictions, but possible activities that could be included under this category are television addiction, computer addiction (e.g.

Prevalence studies of problem gambling in the United States.

Abstract: The rapid expansion of legalized gambling in the United States has produced tremendous demands for information about the number and characteristics of problem gamblers in the general population. This paper examines the results of prevalence studies of problem and pathological gambling that have been carried out in the United States. The discussion is largely chronological, with a focus on comparative findings from the 15 United States jurisdictions where prevalence studies have been completed since 1980. The results of diese studies verify findings from clinical and experimental studies as well as suggesting important avenues for future research. The paper concludes with a consideration of the role played by survey research in advancing the field of gambling research.

Psychopathology in pathological gamblers seeking treatment.

Abstract: High rates of psychiatric symptoms have been reported in pathological gamblers. This study of psychiatric comorbidity in pathological gamblers is the first to use structured psychiatric interviews assessing DSM-III-R Axis I and II disorders. The Structured Clinical Interview for DSM III-R (SCID-P, SCID-II) was administered to 40 (25 male, 15 male) pathological gamblers seeking outpatient treatment in Minnesota for gambling, and 64 (41 male, 23 female) controls. High lifetime rates of Axis I (92%) but not Axis II (25%) psychopathology were found in pathological gamblers as compared to controls. No differences between male and female gamblers were found in rates of affective, substance use or personality disorders. Females had higher rates of anxiety disorders and histories of physical/sexual abuse. Possible associations between psychiatric disorders and pathological gambling are discussed along with gambler typologies and implications for future research.

The prevalence of pathological gambling in Canada.

Abstract: This paper critically reviews prevalence estimates of problem and pathological gambling in Canada. Populations studied are adults, adolescents and primary school children. The proportions of pathological gamblers found in Canadian studies (ranging from 1.2% to 1.9% for adults) are similar to prevalence rates reported in the United States. Given the apparent link between gambling availability and increases in the prevalence of problem and pathological gambling, it is hoped that provincial and federal authorities in Canada will make investments in research and treatment of pathological gambling in the future.

The prevalence of problem and pathological gambling: A critical analysis

Abstract: Prevalence of pathological gambling refers to the percentage of cases of pathological gambling occurring in the community at a given time. Prevalence studies conducted in different principalities throughout the world are reviewed, and it is found that none of them conforms to this definition of prevalence. The major error in all but the most recent surveys conducted is identified as the use of questions which ask whether gambling-related problems have ever occurred rather than whether they are currently occurring. This error will lead to an over-estimation of the prevalence of pathological gambling in society. The second major error identified in nearly all studies involves the accuracy of the screens being used to assess whether or not an individual is a pathological gambler. Concerns about the efficiency of the South Oaks Gambling Screen have not yet been satisfactorily resolved. None-the-less, the widespread use of the South Oaks Gambling Screen has made a valuable contribution to international comparisons of prevalence studies. Future work that explores the emerging relationship between levels of personal expenditure on gambling, types of gambling product and gambling-related problems are recommended.

Understanding the means and objects of addiction: Technology, the internet, and gambling.

Abstract: This article describes how using new computer technology and the Internet for gambling can represent both the means and object of addiction. However, these technological factors do not represent the cause of addictive behavior. Given the widespread availability of computer technology and the remarkable expansion of the Internet, it is not surprising, however, that these technological advances have become associated with intemperate gambling activities. By discussing the concept of addiction and its associated social setting, neurochemistry, and gaming characteristics, this article suggests that addiction is the result of shifts in subjective experience and that new technology and the Internet can provide relatively reliable and potent contemporary vehicles for changing emotional states.

The relationship between gambling and video-game playing behavior in children and adolescents

Abstract: It is suggested that commercial video-games (e.g.Nintendo &Sega) and gambling activities have similar attractive features and intermittent reinforcement schedules. This research seeks to examine the nature of this relationship amongst children. One hundred and four children aged 9 to 14, from grades 4, 6, and 8, participated. A questionnaire exploring issues related to video-game playing and gambling behavior in children and adolescents was completed and a computerized blackjack game was individually administered. High frequency video-game players were compared to low frequency video-game players with respect to their gambling performance on the blackjack gambling task as well as on information gathered from the questionnaire. Of particular concern is the risk-taking strategies used by avid video-game players, whether or not children perceive gambling and video-games as involving similar amounts of skill or whether they realize that gambling is primarily a game of chance. The findings, in general, suggest that high frequency video-game players gamble more than low frequency video-game players, report that gambling makes them feel more important, and take greater risks on the blackjack gambling task although no overall differences in success were found. Males exhibited greater risk-taking tendencies on the blackjack task than females. The clinical implications of the findings are addressed.

Gender, gambling and problem gambling.

Abstract: With data from a 1989 Iowa survey (N=1,011), adult male and female respondents are compared on their problem gambling, its correlates, as well as their gambling behavior. Gambling behavior means its scope, frequency, wagering and leisure time spent at gambling. Women's gambling behavior was lower than that of men, due to their having a narrower scope of gambling behavior, but the genders were not significantly different on frequency, wagering and time spent at gambling. Women and men did not differ significantly on problem gambling. Problem gambling is measured as loss of control over gambling, and consequences due to gambling as well as gambling behavior. Women and men did differ significantly, however, on several predictors of problem gambling. Women's estrangement from a conventional lifestyle and integration into a social world of gambling appeared to help explain their problem gambling. Alcohol consumption appeared to be a more important predictor for men than women. The genders shared the attitude that the odds can be beat as well as being big spenders as predictors of their problem gambling. The results are interpreted with practitioners' efforts to prevent and treat problem gambling in mind.

Estimating the extent and degree of Gambling related problems in the Australian population: A national survey.

Abstract: A stratified random doorknock method was used to interview 2744 respondents in four state capitals in Australia. The interview was in 3 parts with the latter two only administered to regular, once per week or more often gamblers (N=290). The measures completed by this group included the South Oaks Gambling Screen and a range of psychological measures. A conservative interpretation of the results was that “problem gamblers,” defined in terms of a range of personal and interpersonal gambling-related costs, comprised 1.16% (±0.34%) of the Australian population. It was estimated that problem players’ losses may account for about one quarter of all expenditures on gambling.

A developmental perspective of gambling behavior in children and adolescents.

Abstract: Although it has been determined that gambling is a popular activity amongst the young, there seems to be a lack of studies examining developmental differences in children's gambling behavior. This study examines developmental differences in children's blackjack gambling behavior. One hundred and four students (51 males; 53 females) from grades 4, 6, and 8 completed a questionnaire examining their gambling behavior in general and individually played a computerized blackjack game with the following data being recorded: percentage of accuracy, amounts of money bet, gross winnings, percentage of wins, number of hands played, and end balance. Findings revealed few developmental differences in prevalence and frequency of gambling behavior and performance on a blackjack task. Males were found to wager greater amounts of money and have larger gross winnings than females on the blackjack task. Furthermore, males were more likely to view gambling as involving both large amounts of skill and luck, thus suggesting an illusion of control for gambling activities. The results are discussed from a cognitive developmental perspective.

Prevalence surveys of problem and pathological gambling in Europe: The cases of Germany, Holland and Spain.

Abstract: In the 1960s and 1970s, many European countries legalized several forms of gambling, especially slot machines, lotteries, casinos and bingo, in order to control illegal gambling and to obtain tax revenues for government. In this paper, we examine the status of research on problem and pathological gambling in three European countries: Germany, Holland and Spain. The results of the studies as well as the relationship between these studies and the expanding gaming industries, attitudes toward gambling in the general population, and the regulation and control of gaming in each country are discussed.

Gambling behavior of adolescent gamblers

Abstract: An adolescent version of the South Oaks Gambling Screen was administered to 965 high school students, aged 14 to 19 years, in the city of Windsor, Ontario. Ninety percent of the adolescents were involved in gambling activities and a substantial proportion of these were engaged in underage gambling. High levels of problem gambling behaviors were found. Problem gambling behaviors were found to be related to the number of different gambling activities and the amount of money gambled. Problem gambling was defined as a score of five or more on the SOGS-RA screen utilizing a scoring method that paralleled the SOGS scoring method. Problem gambling levels were estimated to be 8.1%±1.8% of the adolescent sample. There were significant gender differences in the level of problem gambling, but no significant difference with age was found.

Skill versus luck: A motivational analysis of gambling involvement.

Abstract: The purpose of the present investigation was to test the skill/luck distinction among gambling games by comparing the motivations underlying participation in a skill (horse racing) and a luck (lottery) betting activity. Predictions were made using Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1991). It was predicted that self-determined motivations (intrinsic motivation and identified regulation) would be more prominent for the skill game because it is conducive to optimal challenges, fun, and self-involvement. Conversely, the non self-determined forms of motivation (especially external regulation) should be more important for the game of luck because the luck dimension precludes true involvement of the self and orients the individual towards material gains. Results from a hierarchical discriminant function analysis, with 120 gamblers predominantly involved in one of the two betting activities, supported these hypotheses. These results highlight the relevance of a motivational analysis for a better understanding of the inherent properties of gambling games.

The factorial structure of pathological gambling.

Abstract: Pathological gambling has been characterised by DSM-III-R and DSM-IV as a disorder of impulse control with a proportion of gamblers identified as meeting criteria for a co-morbid diagnosis of Antisocial Personality Disorder. To date, empirical evidence in support of the notion that pathological gamblers as a group manifest elevated traits of impulsivity remains equivocal. Principal components analysis was used to investigate relationships between the constructs of impulsivity, psychopathy, DSM-III-R criteria for Antisocial Personality Disorder, psychological distress, criminal offending behavior and a range of other common psychological measures employed with pathological gamblers. The sample comprised 115 pathological gamblers, 80 consecutive gamblers seeking treatment from a general hospital psychiatric inpatient behavior therapy unit, and 35 volunteer Gamblers Anonymous attenders. Four primary factors were determined: psychological distress, sensation seeking, crime and liveliness, and impulsive-antisocial. Results suggest that pathological gambling consists of a number of discrete and reproducible factorial structures. The impulsive antisocial factor was found to be associated with gambling behavior and indices of poor psychosocial functioning.

Pathological gambling: Etiologic considerations and treatment efficacy of eye movement desensitization/reprocessing.

Abstract: This study of 22 subjects who meet DSM IV criteria for Pathological Gambling (PG) tests a theory that the development of PG lies in the existence of unresolved trauma-related anxiety, similar to Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, and predicts that reduction of that anxiety will result in reduced pathological gambling behavior The study compares the effect on gambling event frequency of Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) therapy with cognitive therapy to that of cognitive therapy alone for subjects with and without reported trauma history Results are significant for pre- vs post-EMDR (p =04), for those with reported trauma history, (p=01) and when controlled for frequency of sessions and time in therapy prior to the treatment (p=04) Findings support an anxiety based model for the etiology of PG behavior

Video lottery gambling: Effects on pathological gamblers seeking treatment in South Dakota.

Abstract: Fifty-eight pathological gamblers receiving treatment for addictive illness in two South Dakota hospitals were assessed for types of gambling and grouped into three categories; 15 “video lottery only” (VLO), 36 “video lottery mixed” (VLM), and 7 “not video lottery” (NVL). There were 51 male and 7 female respondents, with a mean age of 38.2. We hypothesized that video lottery would be the predominant type of gambling on several dimensions: level of recent activity, most money lost on one occasion, and number of DSM-IV criteria met. Of all gamblers, 87.9% had pathological involvement with video lottery. Video lottery gambling accounted for the highest level of recent activity. In the VLM group, video lottery gambling led to greater single-occasion monetary losses. In addition, significantly more DSM-IV criteria were met in the VLM group for video lottery gambling than for other forms of gambling these subjects had engaged in. Results indicate that video lottery gambling is the predominant type of gambling behavior engaged in by gamblers seeking treatment for addictive illness in South Dakota. We propose that these findings could be associated with the availability and stimulus differences between video lottery and other gambling types.

Pathological gamblers in methadone treatment: A comparison between men and women.

Abstract: This article uses data from interviews with 462 individuals enrolled in methadone treatment programs in New York City to compare the gambling and gambling-related drug use and criminal activities of those males (N=72) and females (N=27) found to be pathological gamblers. Both the male and female pathological gamblers were and continue to be actively involved in various forms of gambling. A greater proportion of males had engaged in almost all specific types of gambling, although differences between males and females were not all statistically significant. Males and females were very similar in terms of their patterns of drug and alcohol use and the substances they used when gambling. Males and females shared some reasons but also had separate reasons as to why they used heroin when they gambled. Males especially may participate in a variety of criminal and hustling activities to have the money to be able to gamble or to pay gambling debts. The implications of this research are discussed.

Prevalence studies and the development of services for problem gamblers and their families.

Abstract: Where funded by government, prevalence studies have typically led to the development of services for problem gamblers and their families. Such assessments of the need for services have been seen as the appropriate political response to growing expressions of concern about problem gambling that often follow moves to legislate for an increasing range of gambling products. This theme is apparent for Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United States. In this paper, initiatives in these different jurisdictions are briefly summarized and tabulated.

Clinical obstacles in administrating the South Oaks Gambling Screen in a methadone and alcohol clinic

Abstract: The South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS) was administered to veterans in both an outpatient methadone and problem drinking clinic. The instrument was given to 93 veterans who represented the poor and homeless. It was anticipated that the SOGS would provide important diagnostic information to the clinicians counseling the substance abusing population since many compulsive gamblers have a history of substance abuse. A number of clinical obstacles were encountered in administrating the SOGS in this environment. Both Client and staff noncompliance during the screening were major concerns in this respect. The clinical obstacles encountered in this study were examined and suggestions to prevent these problems are discussed.

Voluntary turnover among non-supervisory casino employees.

Abstract: As gaming is expanding nationally and internationally, existing gaming operations are facing increased competition for employees with gaming experience. This study investigates the factors related to employee turnover in the gaming industry. Workers of six casinos in Reno, Nevada were surveyed concerning their work attitudes and turnover intentions, resulting in a sample of 492 observations. The sample represents all non-supervisory job types typically found in casinos. Pearson correlations and multivariate regression analysis were employed to investigate the relationships among turnover intentions and job satisfaction, specific satisfaction dimensions, organizational commitment, worker perceptions, pay, and labor market conditions. The results show that job satisfaction and organizational commitment are most strongly related to turnover. In contrast to previous findings, labor market conditions and pay play only a minor role in an employee's decision to quit. Instead, perceived lack of job security, satisfaction with supervision, and perceived employer concern with employee well-being emerge among the most important factors. The results imply that employers in the gaming industry can manage employee turnover by providing effective supervision that is based on employee participation and fair treatment of employees. Training of supervisors, therefore, may be a relatively inexpensive method of controlling employee turnover in casinos.

Gambling and problem gambling among adult Minnesotans: Changes 1990 to 1994.

Abstract: We assess changes in gambling and problem gambling from 1990 to 1994, a period of rapid expansion in gambling availability. Surveys of non-institutionalized adult Minnesotans were conducted in the spring of each year. Problem gambling was assessed using the SOGS-M, the Minnesota revision of the South Oaks Gambling Screen. Gambling was found to be more frequent among Minnesotans in 1994 than in 1990, and the preference for games changed. Moreover, problem gambling increased over the period. This increase, however, appears to have occurred at the lower ends of the problem gambling continuum rather than at the probable pathological level. Policy implications are explored.

Potential and probable pathological gamblers: Where do the differences lie?

Abstract: A large proportion of adolescents engage in gambling activities and the prevalence of pathological gambling is high. This study presents a factor analysis of responses from 122 college students who obtained a score of 3 or greater on the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS), the most widely used instrument to identify probable and potential pathological gamblers. The analysis showed five dimensions: Illegal Behaviors, Heavy Gambling, Eating Disorders, Parentally Modelled/Less Impulsive, and Worry. Analyses revealed that except for the Eating Disorders factor, all factors clearly differentiated the probable from potential pathological gamblers, as identified by the SOGS. Results raise important questions about the relationship of pathological gambling to other psychopathological or antisocial behaviors. Thus the probable pathological gambler category represents a wide-ranging behavioral profile that goes beyond gambling per se. Avenues for future research as well as clinical implications are discussed.

Casino gambling in private school and adjudicated youngsters : A survey of practices and related variables

Abstract: This study provides additional information about casino gambling practices in two adolescent samples. Specifically, 109 adolescents from a religious high school and 84 adolescents from a juvenile detention facility in Las Vegas, Nevada were surveyed. Of these, 71 (36.8%) were found to gamble regularly (58 males, 13 females, mean age 15.9 years). Results indicated many similarities among the two groups. The overall sample appeared to have a strong affinity for casino gambling, were diverse in their practices and reasons for gambling, reported a variety of emotional and physiological behaviors when gambling, occasionally experienced problems from casino gambling, and had parents who generally approved and were aware of their children's gambling behavior. The accessibility and family-oriented nature of many new casinos may be responsible for these effects.

The implementation and effects of Great Britain's National Lottery.

Abstract: This article reviews the implementation of the British National Lottery since the first draw took place in November 1994. It seeks to analyse the experience to date against the background of the concerns expressed prior to its introduction and of the regulatory objectives set by the framework legislation. It also considers the impact that the Lottery is having upon the formulation and implementation of regulatory policy affecting other gambling media. The six sections following the introduction deal in turn with the Lottery's income, permitted games, the participants, the good causes benefiting from its proceeds, its impact on other gambling media, and its place within British government policy concerning the regulation of commercial gambling.

Native American casino gambling in Arizona: A case study of the Fort McDowell reservation.

Abstract: Since Congress passed the American Indian Gambling Regulatory Act (IGRA) in 1988, there has been an explosion in the number of gambling casinos located on Native American reservations. It is estimated that in 1994 the total net revenue from 81 Native American casinos exceeded $2.3 billion dollars. As the number of Native American casinos grows along with the volume of gambling activity, opposition increases from states, the established gambling industry hurt by lost revenues, and groups with moral objections to gambling. This article reports on an effort to measure the economic impact of the Fort McDowell casino located near Phoenix, Arizona. The article discusses the casino's history and current operations. Next, it explains the use of an input-output model to compute the impact of casino's income and employment effects on the economy of Maricopa County. It is estimated that the casino is responsible for 2,483 new jobs, and an increase of approximately $80.35 million in regional output. Additional information is necessary to more accurately assess both the benefits and costs of the casino. Unfortunately, subsequent efforts to collect additional data have been unsuccessful. The conclusion discusses why, and raises questions regarding Native American gaming.

Pathological gambling and criminal culpability: An analysis of forensic evaluations presented to German penal courts.

Abstract: In Germany penal courts and expert witnesses are being confronted with an increasing number of offenders claiming that their criminal behavior had been caused by an irresistible urge to gamble. In 48 of 56 evaluated cases the defendants were diagnosed as pathological gamblers. However, diminished culpability (§ 21 German Criminal Code) was granted in only 32 cases. In these cases the illegal activity to get money could be classified as primarily gambling related.

Preface/Editorial for the special issue.

Abstract: The prevalence of problem gamblers in the general population is one of the few growing areas of research into gambling. The number of studies completed, the funding to support such research and the number of different countries, world-wide, in which these studies have been conducted has grown. This Special Issue provides the first edited overview of this burgeoning literature. Individual authors each summarized several studies, comprising reports of one hundred or more pages to a government or agency. At times this has been at the cost of losing some details of methodology which, as editors, we felt was acceptable given that the extent and breadth of the research was more readily presented to the reader. As in other emerging research arenas, the methods by which \"cases\" of problem gambling are identified has been a matter for debate and critique at conferences and in the literature. As the only acceptably validated screen for pathological gambling, the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS) has inevitably been the target o f much of this criticism. None-the-less, as the reader will become aware, use of the SOGS in the majority of studies completed world-wide provides a unifying link that facilitates comparisons of different prevalence levels in different countries. To a lesser extent, the same holds for those studies which have used the DSM-III-R classification in interview or survey studies. In the absence of either the SOGS or the DSM-III-R, and now DSM-IV, interstate or cross-cultural comparisons of the negative impacts of gambling on the individual would be almost impossible to evaluate. Given the fact that most of the authors in this issue share many of the previously argued reservations about the SOGS, the refinement of this measure and

Book review of casino management for the 90'S

Abstract: Gambling enterprise continues to expand. More properties are being developed and licensed to offer gambling products to the public. Efforts to win legalization for new gambling products in new jurisdictions continue. The enterprise is the fastest growing sector of the fastest growing industry in Americathe entertainment industry. The demand for educational materials on gaming has to be growing as well. New college programs on the management of gambling businesses are being created. As new casino facilities are opening on river boats and Native American reservations, there is a rush to prepare managers and frontline employees for jobs. In the past most managers came up-the-ranks with solid doses of on-the-job-experience. While today's academicians should not seek to argue that such training was inadequate or faulty, the reality is that such training will not suffice for the new world of casino gambling. Too many new places need too many new managers, and they can't wait a generation for dealers to learn the ropes by osmosis. Formal training in academic settings is becoming essential for the growth of the industry. Yet there has been a very slow recognition of the need for books in the area of gambling management. The last major treatment of the subject is Bill Friedman's Casino Management (Llyle Stuart,