Showing papers in "Journal of Motor Behavior in 1976"
TL;DR: Examination of motion trajectories qualitatively supported a descriptive model whereby a visually mediated discrete-correction control process is used, as proposed by Crossman and Goodeve and Keele (1968), but evidence of severe nonlinearities in the measured human movement responses did not support the use of linear control models.
Abstract: The relationship between Fitts' Index of Difficulty (ID = log2 2A/W) and movement time was investigated for finger, wrist, and whole arm motions over a wide range of movement distances (0.25 to 30.5 cm). Results supported Fitts' original speculation that various limb segments may show different maximum information processing rates. Short-distance finger and wrist motions showed much higher rates (38 and 23 bits/sec, respectively) than longer-distance arm motions (10 bits/sec). Examination of motion trajectories qualitatively supported a descriptive model whereby a visually mediated discrete-correction control process is used, as proposed by Crossman and Goodeve (Note 1) and Keele (1968). However, evidence of severe nonlinearities in the measured human movement responses did not support the use of linear control models in explaining the empirical validity of Fitts' law in predicting human motor performance.
395 citations
TL;DR: The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory was administered in this study to distinguish A-State and A-Traits subjects, while electromyography was used to investigate qualitative differences in motor behavior.
Abstract: Much confusion in the research on anxiety and motor behavior is due to the failure to distinguish between anxiety as a transitory state and as a relatively stable state. In addition, researchers have been focusing on the end result of a motor act (performance) instead of investigating the quality of movement (patterns of energy organization) that make up the motor act. The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory was administered in this study to distinguish A-State and A-Trait subjects, while electromyography was used to investigate qualitative differences in motor behavior. High-anxious subjects performed significantly poorer than low-anxious subjects, and they used more energy over a longer period of time before, during, and after the performance than low-anxious subjects. The results were discussed in terms of efficiency of neuromuscular energy expenditure.
126 citations
TL;DR: Choice reaction time prior to a motor response has been shown to depend on the nature of the response to be made, suggesting that some response programming is postponed until after the response sequence is initiated.
Abstract: Choice reaction time prior to a motor response has been shown to depend on the nature of the response to be made. This effect is assumed to represent variations in programming time. However, as the length of a response sequence increases this effect becomes smaller, suggesting that some response programming is postponed until after the response sequence is initiated. The present experiment studied this assumed programming within a sequence of responses. For sequences comprised of two Morse Code responses (e.g. dit-dah) the initial reaction time was independent of the terminal response. However, programming of this terminal response was apparent as a lengthening of the duration of intervals within the response when the terminal response was dah rather than dit. When programming of parts of the sequence is postponed beyond the reaction time interval, the programming occurs later and influences the timing of the sequence of responses.
94 citations
TL;DR: Experiments 1 and 3 looked at the effects of movement length and movement time on the attention demands of movement, and recommended that a two-thirds frequency be adopted by all researchers in this area.
Abstract: The probe technique has been employed extensively to measure the attention demands of movement control. Inherent in any RT paradigm is the potential confounding effect of anticipation. Experiment 1 studied this problem by varying probe frequency (or, conversely, catch-trial frequency) for three independent groups of subjects performing the same movement. Probe frequencies of one-third and two-thirds produced V-shaped curves of probe RT plotted against probe position within the movement, while a three-thirds condition was described by a negatively sloped linear function. Because of the different shaped curves it was recommended that a two-thirds frequency be adopted by all researchers in this area. Experiments 2 and 3 looked at the effects of movement length and movement time on the attention demands of movement. Shorter (11-cm) movements were more attention demanding in the middle of the movement than the longer (50-cm) movements, but movement time had no effect.
90 citations
TL;DR: Two experiments were conducted to test predictions, arising from Schmidt's (1975) schema theory of motor learning, related to the effect of variability of initial practice upon subsequent transfer to another task, and provided some initial support for Schmidt's schema theory for motor learning.
Abstract: Two experiments were conducted to test predictions, arising from Schmidt’s (1975) schema theory of motor learning, related to the effect of variability of initial practice upon subsequent transfer to another task. Rapid linear timing movements were employed to operationally separate the recall and recognition schemata. Experiment 1 showed that training at two different movement times, when given in an appropriate order, facilitated the recall and recognition of a subsequent transfer movement-time task, but only when the criterion movement time was sufficiently outside the range of initial practice. Experiment 2 increased the number of training movement times beyond two, but no reliable transfer effect occurred, although the variable practice groups showed significantly reduction of movement error on the initial transfer trials in the absence of knowledge of results. Overall, the two experiments provided some initial support for Schmidt’s schema theory of motor learning. Diane C. Shapiro is now at the Depa...
87 citations
TL;DR: The ability of the response recognition mechanism to produce motor learning in the absence of KR depended upon the extent to which feedback could be used during response production.
Abstract: Four experiments were conducted to investigate the ability of a response recognition mechanism, developed by presenting the sensory consequences associated with the criterion movement in the absence of actual movement recall, to produce motor learning in the absence of knowledge of results (KR). In Experiments 1 and 2, a rapid linear timing task was used (10.16 cm in 100 msec), and reduction of movement error resulted over no-KR practice trials. Experiments 3 and 4 employed a slow movement-time task (750 and 1250 msec) and a linear positioning task, respectively, and no reduction of movement error occurred over the no-KR practice trials in either experiment. The ability of the response recognition mechanism to produce motor learning in the absence of KR depended upon the extent to which feedback could be used during response production.
50 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the principal defect in the Osgood (1949) transfer surface is the treatment of negative transfer, which may be corrected, although no surface can incorporate all the relevant transfer variables.
Abstract: The principal defect in the Osgood (1949) transfer surface is the treatment of negative transfer. This may be corrected, although no surface can incorporate all the relevant transfer variables. The explanation and the scoring of negative transfer are discussed, with an emphasis on problems of skills learning. The conclusions reached are represented in the design of a new transfer surface.
46 citations
TL;DR: Experiments with a subject-paced pursuit tracking task show that overshoot rate is dependent upon the distance between the target and the display boundary measured in the direction of movement, and that a previously noted inverse relationship with distance to the target is artifactual.
Abstract: Experiments with a subject-paced pursuit tracking task show that overshoot rate is dependent upon the distance between the target and the display boundary measured in the direction of movement, and that a previously noted inverse relationship with distance to the target is artifactual The effect held for tasks with direct and reverse control-display relations, and for tasks with constant and variable target distances The findings were consistent with Wetford’s (1968) hypothesis that a pursuit response is initiated with a ballistic, distance-covering, movement Ralph Leonardo carried out extensive work in collecting data, Fred Hyde maintained the apparatus, and Georgie Green assisted in data analysis
43 citations
TL;DR: It is argued on statistical and conceptual grounds that absolute error can be a meaningful measure of performance and if researchers persist in measuring motor performance through error scores, judicious use of absolute error is appropriate.
Abstract: It is argued on statistical and conceptual grounds that absolute error can be a meaningful measure of performance. When approximately half of each group performs consistently on either side of the criterion, groups can have equal algebraic error and variable error means, leaving absolute error as the only dependent variable to discriminate between the groups. Additionally, absolute error is invariably the dependent variable subjects are asked to minimize in the experimental situation. If researchers persist in measuring motor performance through error scores, judicious use of absolute error is appropriate. Requests for reprints should be sent to K.M. Newell, Institute for Child Behavior and Development, University of Illinois, Champaign, IL 61820.
37 citations
TL;DR: The Sternberg (1969) additive factor method was used to determine whether the stimulus encoding stage was affected by an irrelevant auditory stimulus presented during a visual choice reaction time task, suggesting that irrelevant information did not affect the stimulus encode stage but, instead, affected the response selection stage of processing.
Abstract: The Sternberg (1969) additive factor method was used to determine whether the stimulus encoding stage was affected by an irrelevant auditory stimulus presented during a visual choice reaction time task. Subjects responded to an X or an O by pressing a left-or right-hand key. Onset of this visual stimulus was accompanied by a tone to the left, right, or both ears. Reactions were slower when the locus of the tone did not correspond with the side of the response than when it did correspond. Manipulation of the quality of the visual stimulus, assumed to affect the stimulus encoding stage, did not alter the effect of the irrelevant auditory cue. In a parallel experiment, the same stimuli were used, but the responses employed were “neutral” with respect to the source of the tone. This alteration of response selection operations eliminated the effect of the auditory cue. Findings, then, suggested that irrelevant information did not affect the stimulus encoding stage but, instead, affected the response selection ...
36 citations
TL;DR: Both groups of subjects developed recognition memory during training with KR, and recognition performance was virtually identical for both groups, suggesting previous experience with the sensory consequences of the movement led to improved response production during initial trials.
Abstract: The role of feedback in the development of recognition memory was examined by testing pairs of subjects; one subject performed the movement while the other listened to the movement in an adjacent room. Both groups of subjects developed recognition memory during training with KR, and recognition performance was virtually identical for both groups. In addition, previous experience with the sensory consequences of the movement led to improved response production during initial trials. A possible mechanism to account for this finding is proposed. Appreciation is extended to Richard A. Schmidt and Anne Marie Bird for helpful comments in earlier drafts of this paper.
TL;DR: The evidence for genetic, learning, and pathological antecedents of human handedness was reviewed and little evidence supports the hypothesis that handedness is learned.
Abstract: The evidence for genetic, learning, and pathological antecedents of human handedness was reviewed. There is direct evidence for a genetic component in handedness. In addition, there is a great deal of incidental evidence that is consistent with a genetic hypothesis. There is also some evidence for pathological left-handedness in a small minority of people. Little evidence supports the hypothesis that handedness is learned.
TL;DR: Iris pigmentation effects were found for both auditory and visual stimuli, thus supporting the neuro-pigmentation explanation for differences in the filtering of lightwaves and in CNS neuro- pigmentation.
Abstract: Worthy's (1974) hypothesis that brown-eyed subjects respond faster than blue-eyed subjects on reactive motor tasks was tested. Experiment 1 compared dark-brown and blue-eyed subjects on rotary pursuit and choice response time tasks. There was a tendency for the predicted effect, but it was only evident for choice responding where speed was the principal performance criterion. In Experiment 2 iris pigmentation effects were found to be limited to the reaction-time component, but not the movement time component, of a simple motor response. Differences in the filtering of lightwaves and in CNS neuro-pigmentation are mechanisms commonly used to explain these findings. Iris pigmentation effects were found for both auditory and visual stimuli, thus supporting the neuro-pigmentation explanation.
TL;DR: The contribution of visual information to controlling standing posture, arm and shoulder movement, and wrist movement were investigated and it was confirmed that the speed and accuracy of hand movements are in a reciprocal relationship.
Abstract: The information flow necessary to coordinate hand movements with vision is summarized. A series of experiments was performed which quantitatively examined and confirmed the summary. In general, an information-theoretic approach was used. It was confirmed that the speed and accuracy of hand movements are in a reciprocal relationship. The accuracy of a movement is more sensitive to a loss of visual information than the pacing mechanism. Both speed and accuracy are sensitive to withdrawal of information to maintain posture. It is suggested that the retrieval of a movement pre-program is disturbed by afferent “noise.” The contribution of visual information to controlling standing posture, arm and shoulder movement, and wrist movement were investigated.
TL;DR: The results failed to provide strong support for the hypothesis that movements, and hence motor programs, requiring greater precision had longer latencies, relating change in response complexity to the spatial and temporal structure of the motor program.
Abstract: The latency of movements requiring successively more and more precision was investigated in three simple reaction time experiments. The movements involved a horizontal arm sweep aimed at small circular targets. The results failed to provide strong support for the hypothesis that movements, and hence motor programs, requiring greater precision had longer latencies. The results are discussed in terms of a neural organization hypothesis, relating change in response complexity to the spatial and temporal structure of the motor program.
TL;DR: The interpolated motor short-term memory task interfered with skill acquisition and retention in subjects who were presented two biasing movements during the KR-delay interval.
Abstract: The effects of an interpolated motor short-term memory task during the KR-delay interval on skill acquisition was investigated. On each trial subjects estimated two positions on a linear-positioning apparatus. One group of subjects was presented two biasing movements, which they immediately recalled, during the KR-delay interval. The interpolated motor short-term memory task interfered with skill acquisition and retention.
TL;DR: The choice of probability leffort (COPE) devices require fatigued subjects to choose between risk and effort, and data correlated with self-rated fatigue, and closely paralleled earlier work using perceptual fatigue and perceptual effort.
Abstract: The choice of probability leffort (COPE) devices require fatigued subjects to choose between risk and effort. In a first experiment, where fatigue was induced by an intense or by a prolonged motor task and where the required effort was perceptual, the fatigue did not generalize to the test mode. A second experiment used motor fatigue of the arm or leg, and tested with arm muscle effort, showing that subjects fatigued with either limb chose riskier alternatives in order to avoid the effort. The data correlated with self-rated fatigue, and closely paralleled earlier work using perceptual fatigue and perceptual effort.
TL;DR: All three dependent measures of motor memory, AE or E, CE, and VE, should be reported in order to improve cross-experimental comparison and to facilitate a clearer understanding of what each of these measures mean in terms of memory processes.
Abstract: While research into the processes underlying motor memory has burgeoned in the past decade, issues as to what dependent measure(s) to use (i.e., AE, E, CE, or VE) have not been adequately resolved. Does one use a single (composite) meausre (i.e., AE or E) or its components (i.e., CE and VE)? If one decides to use a single measure, either AE or E, which is more appropriate? A cursory examination of the reported literature dealing with motor memory reveals a decided lack of cross-experimental consistency in the use of dependent measures that can only serve to impede a clear understanding of memory processes. It is argued here that in order to improve cross-experimental comparison and to facilitate a clearer understanding of what each of these measures mean in terms of memory processes all three (i.e., AE or E, CE, and VE) should be reported.
TL;DR: A number of methodological problems are discussed which may have contributed to the equivocality of the extant data on the processing of KR during the post-KR period.
Abstract: A basic assumption of cognitive theories of learning is that subjects actively operate upon the knowledge of results (KR) they receive. Tests of this assumption in motor skills contexts, however, have yielded conflicting data. The relevant studies are critically examined. A number of methodological problems are discussed which may have contributed to the equivocality of the extant data on the processing of KR during the post-KR period.
TL;DR: The present experiment varied delay (2 or 30 sec) in two groups of 20 females and there was no evidence that the delay variable was relevant for learning in positioning responses.
Abstract: Earlier studies of knowledge of results delay in positioning responses have required subjects to move “briskly” to the target position, creating a potential bias in the interpretation of the results for recall and recognition memory mechanisms. The present experiment varied delay (2 or 30 sec) in two groups of 20 females. Subjects were instructed to move very slowly and the starting positions were varied to prevent pre-programmed movements of a given extent. Even with these methodological changes, there was no evidence that the delay variable was relevant for learning in positioning responses.
TL;DR: The present experiment provided adequate control, and results indicated that distribution of practice was a factor affecting performance rather than learning
Abstract: Earlier studies considering distribution of practice as a factor affecting learning and/or performance have employed a transfer design and consequently have failed to provide the means for refuting the contention that postrest performance was the manifestation of extended practice, a temporary performance variation, or some form of the “Hawthorne effect” rather than the result of the independent variable. The present experiment provided adequate control, and results indicated that distribution of practice was a factor affecting performance rather than learning.
TL;DR: Jones' (1972) theory relative to the superdiagonal form of a correlation matrix of repeated trials for a psychomotor task was evaluated for three tasks: pursuit rotor, stabilometer, and Rhythmic Analysis System.
Abstract: Jones’ (1972) theory relative to the superdiagonal form of a correlation matrix of repeated trials for a psychomotor task was evaluated for three tasks: pursuit rotor, stabilometer, and Rhythmic Analysis System. Results indicated no support for Jones’ statement that most complex psychomotor skills show increasing superdiagonal form. In fact only limited support was found for any type superdiagonal form. However, 8 to 10 trials did appear to be necessary for agreement between the dependent variables for both the pursuit rotor and stabilometer. In addition, a plateau in the acquisition curve for these two tasks on the time-dependent variable appeared after 8 to 10 trials.
TL;DR: In the present paper issues relating to the review of existing literature, the methodology employed and the conclusions reached in the Kelso et al. study are discussed.
Abstract: In a study by Kelso, Stelmach, and Wanamaker (1974), data were presented showing a progressive decrement in electromyographic responses to supramaximal whole-nerve stimulation with the development of ischemia-induced anoxia. Accordingly, they questioned the suitability of employing ischemia-induced anesthesia (nerve compression block) in the study of movement control. In the present paper issues relating to the review of existing literature, the methodology employed and the conclusions reached in the Kelso et al. study are discussed.
TL;DR: There was no statistical support for the hypothesis that coaction would interact with the habit-strength condition resulting in an improvement in the coaction/habit-correct group and a decrement in theCoaction/ Habit-incorrect group.
Abstract: The present investigation examined the effects of initial habit strength differences upon performance in a coaction situation. During a training session, a habit-strength hierarchy was developed in each of three groups through the establishment of a differential response expectancy for each of four alternative responses. In a subsequent test session, both performance and consistency of performance were affected by the pretraining on the correct habit. However, there was no statistical support for the hypothesis that coaction would interact with the habit-strength condition resulting in an improvement in the coaction/habit-correct group and a decrement in the coaction/habit-incorrect group. Similarly, no differences were found between the coaction and alone conditions.
TL;DR: The interaction between preparatory set and response complexity was demonstrated in an experiment investigating the reaction latency of discrete arm movements, and theoretical implications of the results for Henry's (1960) memory drum theory of neuromotor reaction were discussed.
Abstract: The interaction between preparatory set and response complexity was demonstrated in an experiment investigating the reaction latency of discrete arm movements. Following simple finger-lift reaction-time (RT) trials, subjects performed simple and complex versions of a discrete horizontal arm movement under one of two enforced preparatory set conditions. For the simple task, requiring subjects to attend to the components of the response prior to stimulus presentation (enforced motor set) produced significantly shorter RTs than when concentration was on the stimulus (enforced sensory set). However, RT differences for the complex version of the task failed significance. Theoretical implications of the results for Henry’s (1960) memory drum theory of neuromotor reaction were discussed.
TL;DR: No meaningful distinction in motor performance between the two groups of subjects was apparent during initial and final normal vision conditions, but field-independent subjects performed the criterion task with significantly greater accuracy during the displaced-vision condition.
Abstract: This study compared the effect of displaced lateral vision upon performance of a gross motor task in field-dependent and field-independent female athletes. No meaningful distinction in motor performance between the two groups of subjects was apparent during initial and final normal vision conditions. However, field-independent subjects performed the criterion task with significantly greater accuracy during the displaced-vision condition.
TL;DR: Initial failure improved subjects' subsequent performance, thus supporting the dissonance theory, but this effect was observed only under low-ego-involving conditions, thereby suggesting that the effects of dissonance and ego involvement are interdependent.
Abstract: This study examined the effects of success and failure feedback on subsequent motor performance. Based upon the general motivation (or level-of-aspiration) hypothesis, initial success should lead to better subsequent performance than does initial failure, while the reverse prediction was derived from the cognitive dissonance theory. To test these rival hypotheses, two experiments were conducted on undergraduate male students (n =120) performing a motor maze task. Initial failure improved subjects' subsequent performance, thus supporting the dissonance theory. However, this effect was observed only under low-ego-involving conditions, thereby suggesting that the effects of dissonance and ego involvement are interdependent. The findings were discussed in terms of motivational and informational/attributional effects of outcome feedback on motor performance.
TL;DR: In this paper, a reaction-time measure of attention was employed during five segments of a simultaneous dart throw: premovement decision, immediately after recoil was begun, maximum recoil was started, forward movement was initiated, and release of the dart.
Abstract: A reaction-time measure of attention was employed during five segments of a simultaneous dart throw: premovement decision, immediately after recoil was begun, maximum recoil, immediately after forward movement was begun, and after release of the dart. Reaction time was significantly longer when the stimulus was presented during the first or second segment than during later segments. Reaction time during premovement was not consistently greater than that immediately after movement was begun, indicating that information is being sampled at a high rate after movement commences. It appears that monitoring of proprioceptive feedback after movement has begun, and initiation of corrective submovements, is necessary for skillful performance of dart throwing.
TL;DR: Preview led to greater timing accuracy and consistency than did either no preview or movement, and movement did not influence timing accuracy, but resulted in greater timing consistency in the absence of preview.
Abstract: Preview and voluntary movement in discrete motor response timing was investigated. Subjects lifted the right index finger from a response key when a moving pointer (1.260-sec travel time) passed directly under a stationary pointer. Four groups of 15 male and female college students performed 150 trials of the timing task with knowledge of results after each trial under one of four conditions: (a) preview of the moving pointer and left-arm movement, (b) preview of the moving pointer but no left-arm movement, (c) left-arm movement but no preview, and (d) no preview and no left-arm movement. Preview led to greater timing accuracy and consistency than did either no preview or movement. Movement did not influence timing accuracy, but resulted in greater timing consistency in the absence of preview. When preview and movement were available at the same time, the subject relied on preview to keep time.
TL;DR: Age trends in children's ball-rolling accuracy were investigated, and the concept of modification of performance toward less variability was supported by significant reduction of mean intraindividual variance with age; however, the sex difference in mean intrainingdIndividual variance was not constant over age.
Abstract: Age trends in children's ball-rolling accuracy were investigated with a concentration on intraindividual variability. The subjects were boys and girls (n =20 each) who were randomly selected from each of seven groupings representing ages 5 to 11 yr. Significant reduction in mean constant error occurred with increasing age for both sexes, and the boys performance was superior to that of the girls' across ages. The concept of modification of performance toward less variability was supported by significant reduction of mean intraindividual variance with age; however, the sex difference in mean intraindividual variance (greater consistency in boys' performance) was not constant over age. The results are discussed in relation to speculated cultural influences, and consideration is given to the importance of examining intraindividual variance in studies of age trends in motor performance.