Showing papers in "Journal of Special Education in 1981"
TL;DR: The authors found that a referred child was more likely to be diagnosed as emotionally disturbed when the referral statement of the problem was listed as behavioral rather than academic, and that only the nature of the referral problem was found to be influential in the simulated decisions.
Abstract: Educational decision makers (n = 224) participated in a computer-simulated decision-making experience designed to ascertain the extent to which referral information biased classification decisions. Subjects were randomly assigned to 16 different conditions that varied on the basis of the referred child's sex, socioeconomic status, physical attractiveness, and nature of referral problem. Subjects accessed test data, all of which reported performance in the normal range. Only the nature of the referral problem was found to be influential in the simulated decisions. A referred child was more likely to be diagnosed as emotionally disturbed when the referral statement of the problem was listed as behavioral rather than academic. Subjects ignored standardized test information indicative of average performance, and retained the stereotype created by the referral information. The results are discussed with regard to implications for assessment of children and future research.
77 citations
TL;DR: The Learning Potential Assessment Device (LPAD) as mentioned in this paper is an approach to the production and measurement of cognitive change, which can be used in solving practical problems with important educational and social implications.
Abstract: The Learning Potential Assessment Device (LPAD) is presented as an approach to the production and measurement of cognitive change. The assessment of cognitive change requires a means of conceptualizing the initial and end states as well as the nature of the change. The LPAD model and cognitive map provide this means. Four changes from traditional psychometric approaches are necessary: shift from product to process orientation and modification of test structure, test situation, and interpretation of results. The components of the cognitive map (content, modality, operation, phase, level of complexity, and level of efficiency) provide the conceptual model for production and measurement of cognitive change. The paper presents 3 empirical studies illustrating how the LPAD may be applied in solving practical problems with important educational and social implications.
62 citations
TL;DR: Instrumental enrichment (IE) as discussed by the authors is a phase-specific substitute for Mediated Learning Experience (MLE) to enhance cognitive modifiability by sensitizing the learner to formal and informal sources of learning and experience.
Abstract: A theory of cognitive modifiability deals with the phenomenon of low cognitive performance, explains its etiology, and forms the basis for a remedial intervention — Instrumental Enrichment (IE) — that induces changes of a structural nature. In contrast to learning by direct exposure to the environment, Mediated Learning Experience (MLE) occurs when a mediator interposes him/herself between the learner and the environment and interprets the world to the learner. The direct, or proximal, etiology of low performance is lack of MLE. IE is intended as a phase-specific substitute for MLE, and its major goal is to enhance cognitive modifiability by sensitizing the learner to formal and informal sources of learning and experience. The IE intervention program is briefly outlined, and empirical support for its efficacy is presented.
60 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the etiology of academic helplessness is reviewed with respect to attributional style in children who experience performance deficits, and the similarities between helpless children and learning disabled students in terms of problem-solving and attention are discussed.
Abstract: The application of learned-helplessness theory to achievement is discussed within the context of implications for research in learning disabilities. The etiology of academic helplessness is reviewed with respect to attributional style in children who experience performance deficits. Of interest are gender differences, mediating variables, information processing, and strategies of intervention. Research has established that helpless students have a maladaptive style of attribution. Attributing academic failure to an internal, invariant source of poor ability has been significantly associated with an expectancy of noncontrol and poor achievement. Teacher and parental practices have been shown to have an important influence on the development of negative self-attribution. Finally, the similarities between helpless children and learning disabled students in terms of problem-solving and attention are discussed.
42 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a review of cognitive-behavioral approaches to the training of intelligence in the retarded is presented, where a proposed structure of intelligent behavior is presented that serves as the basis for classifying the intended foci of various training programs.
Abstract: The author reviews cognitive-behavioral approaches to the training of intelligence in the retarded. A proposed structure of intelligent behavior is presented that serves as the basis for classifying the intended foci of the various training programs. Then selected training programs are reviewed in terms of this classification. The training programs tend to concentrate on executive or metacomponential functions; on components of acquisition, retention, and transfer; or on components of performance in tasks requiring intelligent behavior. Consideration is also given to the roles structural and motivational variables should play in programs of training. Finally, conclusions are drawn regarding the present and potential success of programs for training intellectual skills in the retarded.
34 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a case study of severely handicapped children using computer-based exploratory learning systems show that they eagerly involve themselves in the activities and demonstrate skills thought to be beyond their ability by more traditional approaches.
Abstract: Traditional computer-assisted instruction (CAI) has limited itself to programmed learning techniques. While valuable for certain skills, CAI has not been effective for increasing the reading and language skills of children with communication handicaps such as deafness, cerebral palsy, or autism. A rationale for exploratory learning is presented emphasizing the need for modeling normal communication development. Case studies of severely handicapped children using computer-based exploratory learning systems show that they eagerly involve themselves in the activities and demonstrate skills thought to be beyond their ability by more traditional approaches.
30 citations
TL;DR: A review of the current status of these problems and information that has become available since 1972 can be found in this article, where the authors concluded that biased selection of treatment groups, contamination of criterion tests, failure to specify the treatments, and inaccessibility of data to professional analysis.
Abstract: The Milwaukee Project, conducted by R. Heber, H. Garber, and others with small numbers of inner-city preschool children, has been described as raising IQs from the dull-normal to the superior ranges. Despite its fame, however, it has rarely been studied technically or critically. An earlier (1972) writing by Page reached the conclusion that the project was characterized by biased selection of treatment groups, contamination of criterion tests, failure to specify the treatments, and inaccessibility of data to professional analysis. This newer article reviews the current status of these problems and presents information that has become available since 1972. The long-promised final report has not been issued, but what evidence there is suggests a decline of the experimental, massive-intervention children to the level of the untreated controls in those measures, such as school reading, which are not under the control of the project.
28 citations
TL;DR: Syracuse University's Psychoeducational Teaching Laboratory attempted to evaluate how well it was transmitting the principles of multidimensional and nonbiased assessment practices to its students.
Abstract: Syracuse University's Psychoeducational Teaching Laboratory attempted to evaluate how well it was transmitting the principles of multidimensional and nonbiased assessment practices to its students. School psychology and special education graduate students were asked to make program placement decisions for a child when given data about IQ, adaptive behavior higher than IQ, and academic achievement. Results indicated that the school psychology and special education programs were equally successful in training students to seek least restrictive school placements. Their decisions reflected a greater degree of integration with nonhandicapped students than might be expected from either the child's IQ or adaptive-behavior data alone. However, no matter what the order of presentation of IQ and adaptive-behavior data, IQ had a powerful paralyzing effect on further flexibility in problem solving. For these students, the mainstreaming ideology had taken hold, but the IQ information had not been demystified. If these...
26 citations
TL;DR: A review of the literature relating to the role and function of administrators and supervisors in special education can be found in this paper, where the authors discuss the major components of the supervisor/administrator role and suggest expanded role and areas of research in administration and supervision of exceptional children.
Abstract: This study reviews the literature relating to the role and function of administrators and supervisors in special education; reviews the literature concerning requirements for supervisory or administrative certification in special education; examines the major components of the supervisor/administrator role; and suggests expanded role and areas of research in administration and supervision of exceptional children.
24 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors argue that cognitive development is alterable via environmental and instructional influences, cognition in handicapped populations is difficult to ascertain and is therefore being neglected; and current special education treatment interventions and methodologies have in the past occluded research developments in cognitive training.
Abstract: The authors caution that in neglecting to focus on cognitive training, special educaton may be denying the very ideology on which it is built. Evidence is presented that (a) cognitive development is alterable via environmental and instructional influences; (b) cognition in handicapped populations is difficult to ascertain and is therefore being neglected; and (c) current special education treatment interventions and methodologies have in the past occluded research developments in cognitive training. It is also argued that investigations of cognitive approaches to instruction are so characterized by design flaws that no substantive conclusions can be drawn regarding the usefulness of cognitive theory. Finally, social learning theory is suggested as a means of providing special educators with valuable insights regarding the training of cognitive processes.
21 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, human-figure drawings of 316 public school pupils, half of whom were referred for counseling services, were analyzed using the Koppitz system of indicators of emotionality.
Abstract: Human-figure drawings of 316 public school pupils, half of whom were referred for counseling services, were analyzed using the Koppitz system of indicators of emotionality. Subjects in the study were considered to be either learning disabled, educationally handicapped, behavior disordered, or ineligible for special education services on the basis of their most recent psychological evaluation. The results demonstrated that the counseling-referred children's drawings contained a higher number of many of the Koppitz emotional indicators than did the drawings of nonreferred children. However, school psychologists were not able to distinguish the drawings of counseling-referred pupils from those of the nonreferred using clinical inspection. The results of a discriminant function analysis suggested that the learning-disabled students could be distinguished from the other groups on the basis of the type of emotional indicator present in their protocols. A factor analysis of the data produced one easily interpret...
TL;DR: In this paper, a tactile display consisting of 9 removable symbols was inspected by blind braille students in grades 4 to 12 and the students were asked to replace the parts in their correct location.
Abstract: A primary purpose of maps is to convey information about space and spatial relationships. This study was an attempt to determine whether specific training in scanning a tactile display would enable blind students to more effectively organize the spatial relationships presented than would students not so trained. Thirty-six braille students in grades 4 to 12 were asked to inspect a tactile display consisting of 9 removable symbols. After inspection, the 9 symbols were removed and the students were asked to replace the parts in their correct location. There were 2 groups: a control group that received no training and an experimental group that was trained to systematically search the display using a vertical search technique. The results showed that the students in the lower grade levels benefited most from the training and were superior to the control group in the same grades. However, training interfered with the performance of the students in the upper grade levels (10 to 12), with the control group perf...
TL;DR: The authors found that the treatment was differentially effective for special education majors and non-special education majors in assessing their attitudes toward the handicapped, as measured by the Attitude Toward Disabled Persons Scale (ATDP) and Handicapped Subscale of the Special Vocational Needs Attitude Scale (SVNH).
Abstract: The primary purpose of this study was to determine if undergraduates' attitudes toward the handicapped could be positively modified by observing videotapes of handicapped children. Fifty-two special education and non-special education majors enrolled in an introductory special education course were randomly assigned to either an experimental group that observed videotapes of handicapped children or a control group that did not. The Attitude Toward Disabled Persons Scale (ATDP) and the Handicapped Subscale of the Special Vocational Needs Attitude Scale (SVNH) were used as pre-test and posttest measures. Experimental-group subjects had significantly more positive attitudes toward the handicapped as measured by the ATDP. A significant interaction of treatment and academic major on attitudes toward the handicapped, as measured by the SVNH, indicated that the treatment was differentially effective for special education majors and non-special education majors.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present the argument that serious problems exist with regard to the competence of professionals involved in the assessment of exceptional children and make recommendations for improving the competence and performance of professionals.
Abstract: The author presents the argument that serious problems exist with regard to the competence of professionals involved in the assessment of exceptional children. The argument is presented through citation of opinions and perceptions related to problems in professional performance, review of research on professionals' test-scoring skill, and discussion of research and documentation related to the placement of children in special education. Recommendations for improving the competence and performance of professionals are also given. These include suggestions for research aimed at identifying specific areas of training need for particular groups of professionals, in-service efforts to address areas of documented training need, and consideration of a performance-based certification system to assure adequate levels of professional competence. Only through such comprehensive evaluation, training, and certification efforts can quality assessment services be provided and maintained.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors provide specific accounts of the conception of Head Start and the evolution of the concept of planned variation that grew out of Follow Through and continued into Head Start Planned Variation.
Abstract: Three national evaluation efforts — Head Start, Follow Through Planned Variation, and Head Start Planned Variation — are reviewed to examine their effectiveness concerning the trainability of intelligence. The development of the 3 projects are placed in historical context, and the results of pre-Head Start intervention studies are summarized. The authors provide specific accounts of the conception of Head Start and the evolution of the concept of planned variation that grew out of Follow Through and continued into Head Start Planned Variation. The evidence on the effectiveness of these projects is highly controversial, but it is concluded that the literature suggests short-term effectiveness. There is also evidence regarding the long-term effects of early intervention, and in this regard two major follow-up studies are reported.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors discuss financial and administrative obstacles to successful implementation of P.L. 94-142 and highlight the need to prepare the local administrative cadre on whom the burden of implementation has not been addressed.
Abstract: The author discusses financial and administrative obstacles to successful implementation of P.L. 94-142. He points out that P.L. 94-142 has established new and higher performance objectives for special education without providing sufficient monetary resources. Despite the limited resources, the special education cost spiral continues upward. A major administrative obstacle to the implementation of the Law is the failure of its drafters to recognize the importance of the local special education administrator in carrying through on the Law's provisions and intent. In marked contrast to other special education legislation, which is generally limited to broad policy statements, P.L. 94-142 hands down specific policies and operational procedures. However, the need to prepare the local administrative cadre on whom falls the burden of implementation has not been addressed. External mandates alone cannot ensure change in the quality of services delivered to exceptional children. Yet the leadership training needs ...
TL;DR: In this article, a reconceptualization of the notion of cerebral dominance may be in order and the implications for children with learning disorders is discussed, as well as a rationale for this re-conceptualization and its implications for reading and learning disorders.
Abstract: Over the past several decades much has been written regarding the suspected relationship between cerebral lateralization for function and cognitive development. Most typically, the research in this area has attempted to relate poorly established lateral preferences to reading and learning disorders. Generally, these research efforts have been inconclusive in increasing our conceptual understanding of this relationship. However, recent research employing more direct measures of central functional asymmetry suggests that a reconceptualization of the notion of cerebral dominance may be in order. A rationale for this reconceptualization is provided and the implications for children with learning disorders is discussed.
TL;DR: Evidence for Feingold's hypothesis that synthetic food colors cause hyperactivity in some children is weak, and 6 hyperactive boys constituted a single-subject experiment, where 1 of the 6 subjects responded with hyperactive behavior to the challenge cookies.
Abstract: The double-blind, double-crossover study tested Feingold's hypothesis that synthetic food colors cause hyperactivity in some children. Each of 6 hyperactive boys constituted a single-subject experiment. All subjects were on the Feingold diet eliminating artificial colors and flavors. All mothers claimed the diet had been effective. Subjects were challenged twice, for 3-day periods, with synthetic colors introduced in cookies eaten on challenge days. Identically appearing and tasting cookies containing no synthetics were eaten on control days. Data analyses suggested that 1 of the 6 subjects responded with hyperactive behavior to the challenge cookies. This result, however, was not duplicated in a replication study. Results from other diet challenges were reviewed. The authors conclude that evidence for Feingold's hypothesis is weak.
TL;DR: The authors reviewed measures of decision making frequently applied within special education, and presented the rationale and procedure for applying receiver-operating-characteristic analysis to the field of special education Implications for screening and diagnosis are discussed.
Abstract: While there has been a growing interest in obtaining and using diagnostic information in the evaluation of youngsters with handicapping conditions, relatively little attention has been paid to the interpretation of this information in making decisions This paper reviews measures of decision making frequently applied within special education, and presents the rationale and procedure for applying receiver-operating-characteristic analysis to the field of special education Implications for screening and diagnosis are discussed
TL;DR: In this paper, the potential of intelligence theory in guiding the development of educational programs for the mentally retarded is suggested, where the Campione-Brown model is used to infer skills, states and processes of trainable mentally retarded and profoundly mentally retarded children that are modifiable and to target objectives for educational interventions.
Abstract: This paper suggests the potential of intelligence theory in guiding the development of educational programs for the mentally retarded. The Campione-Brown model is used to infer skills, states, and processes of trainable mentally retarded and profoundly mentally retarded children that are modifiable and to target objectives for educational interventions. The integration of components in the architectural and executive systems, such as perceptual efficiency, strategies, and knowledge states, represents functional intelligence. Trainable components of intelligence can serve as objectives in educational planning, while the identification of structural limitations leads to programming the environment to meet diminished efficiency or to developing support systems, such as self-instructional routines. In short, a reciprocal relationship is suggested for emerging theories of intelligence and changing educational practices.
TL;DR: In this paper, over 900 children were observed in different classroom settings with regard to verbal interaction, attending, nonattending, and disruptive behavior, and these were further broken into three conditions in which either peers or teachers were involved or where no observable response to the behavior was noticed.
Abstract: Little research has been done on direct observation of retarded children in ongoing classroom situations, despite the fact that it can provide data on social or academic characteristics which are often quite different from those obtained by indirect measures such as teacher ratings or psychometrics. In the present study, over 900 children were observed in different classroom settings with regard to verbal interaction, attending, nonattending, and disruptive behavior. These were further broken into 3 conditions in which either peers or teachers were involved or where no observable response to the behavior was noticed. While total on-task behavior distinguished institutionalized children from children in community schools and special classes, it did not differentiate retarded children in community-based classrooms from one another. While some unexpected patterns of behavior emerged in each group, these generally tended to disappear when within-group classroom differences were taken into account. Some develo...
TL;DR: The authors examined the special education periodical literature, drawing from four major journals over a 5-year period, and found that the clearest distinction among journals can be made in the area of exceptionality, where the American Journal of Mental Deficiency is devoted to a broad disciplinary spectrum promoting communication among scientists-researchers in mental retardation.
Abstract: The special education periodical literature was examined, drawing from 4 major journals over a 5-year period. The procedure required a team of 4 reviewers to classify each article in the 4 periodicals from 1972 to 1977 according to the variables of process, content, category, audience, and exceptionality. The clearest distinction among journals can be made in the area of exceptionality. Generally, the American Journal of Mental Deficiency is devoted to a broad disciplinary spectrum promoting communication among scientists-researchers in mental retardation. The Journal of Special Education is written to the academic special educator, providing a forum for professional and philosophical issues. Exceptional Children tends to address a diverse audience and describes a potpourri of current issues and limited research. It focuses on descriptions of service-delivery systems and social/political factors that influence special education. The Journal of Learning Disabilities reports on a wide range of content and p...
TL;DR: A brief review of these tests is provided, and it is concluded that the procedures possess a number of characteristics that make the evaluation of change in intelligence a tenuous proposition.
Abstract: Studies evaluating the trainability of intelligence have been dependent, in the main, upon a relatively small number of contemporary measurement procedures largely derived from a common base. A brief review of these tests is provided, and it is concluded that the procedures possess a number of characteristics that make the evaluation of change in intelligence a tenuous proposition. The most serious concern is seen as revolving about the evidence of test validity. The case is advanced that at least 4 conceptually distinct types of validity should be required of these tests and that in most instances this is now assumed rather than demonstrated. As a result, many of the conclusions drawn from efforts to evaluate change in intelligence may be erroneous; hence, the trainability of intelligence cannot be fully judged from the existing research in which these measures are used.
TL;DR: In this paper, the utility of diagnostic decision making from the perspective of receiver operating curve analysis is examined and a procedure for determining the expected utility of a decision strategy is illustrated, which is suggested to enhance the productivity of special educators.
Abstract: The utility of the procedures special educators apply in making decisions about the identification of handicapped individuals has not been thoroughly studied. The necessity of evaluating the utility aspect of decision making is particularly important in times of both budgetary belt-tightening and legislation calling for the expansion of services to the handicapped. This paper examines the utility of diagnostic decision making from the perspective of receiver operating curve analysis. A procedure for determining the expected utility of a decision strategy is illustrated. It is suggested that the evaluation of the utility of diagnostic decision making will enhance the productivity of special educators.
TL;DR: In this article, three major issues loom in response to a federal law that requires state and local educational policy action: 1. Is P.L. 94-142 achieving its purpose? 2. Will the Law set into motion a current that will ultimately result in a significant backlash, particularly by regular educators who view it as a threat?
Abstract: the social-political surroundings that shroud them. What may be represented in the four responses is more than a difficulty in communicating (I to them, and they to me). It may be the inability of persons from different backgrounds (e.g., parents, legislators, officers of the judiciary), to perceive the same problem similarly. Therefore, it is not surprising that differing solutions are proposed. Simply then, three major issues loom in response to a federal law that requires state and local educational policy action. These issues are: 1. Is P.L. 94-142 achieving its purpose? 2. Will the Law set into motion a current that will ultimately result in a significant backlash, particularly by regular educators who view it as a threat?
TL;DR: Advances in science and medicine, coupled with a lowered birthrate, should reduce the incidence of mental retardation markedly by the end of the century, but special educators do not seem to be aware of this impending change.
Abstract: Current research on neural mechanisms of learning and memory is revealing neurochemical and neuroanatomical changes that may store memories. These changes occur at the synaptic junctions, which are the functional contacts between neurons. Various drugs can either improve or impair the formation of memory. In experimental animals, full development of the brain and of behavioral capacity require experience that is enriched beyond the level of the standard colony environment. Enriched experience also serves as therapy for brain damage. Advances in science and medicine, coupled with a lowered birthrate, should reduce the incidence of mental retardation markedly by the end of the century, but special educators do not seem to be aware of this impending change.
TL;DR: In this article, the author reviewed three topics featured in his first Behavior Modification column: pupil management, social validation, and nondiscriminatory testing, and two new topics are also discussed: data and decisions, and program evaluation.
Abstract: The author reviews 3 topics featured in his first Behavior Modification column: pupil management, social validation, and nondiscriminatory testing. Two new topics are also discussed: data and decisions, and program evaluation. As for the first, a few studies are reviewed which suggest that pupils' performance is aided when teachers use graphs to make instructional decisions. As for the second topic, a study is summarized to illustrate how direct and daily measurement may be arranged to evaluate and compare instructional programs.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors employed in-service workshops and simulated exercises with groups of early childhood teachers (N = 48) to evaluate the effective features of diagnostic reports that make them useful to teachers for individualized curriculum planning.
Abstract: With the rise of mandated services for young handicapped children, school psychologists, early educators, and parents need to combine their efforts to accurately assess and program for them. The diagnostic psychoeducational report is a vital step in the process of clearly communicating information regarding child capabilities so that individualized interventions can be designed. However, descriptive research, as well as the criticisms of parents and teachers, suggests that traditional diagnostic reports are ineffective as guides to curriculum planning. This study employed in-service workshops and simulated exercises with groups of early childhood teachers (N = 48) to evaluate the effective features of diagnostic reports that make them useful to teachers for individualized curriculum planning. Results support the advantages of using developmentally based reports to facilitate program planning. Suggestions for enhancing diagnostic reports are discussed.
TL;DR: In this paper, a system for representing the individual's current level of behavioral organization and designing environmental interactions that expand the constructions of the individual into reorganized, more complex forms is presented.
Abstract: Piaget's theory of intellectual development provides educators of handicapped individuals with an instructional framework that views development as an ordinal sequence in which later forms of complex behavior are derived from earlier and less complex response forms. Piagetian-based curricular attempts in special education may have to begin with a system for representing the individual's current level of behavioral organization and designing environmental interactions that expand the constructions of the individual into reorganized, more complex forms. While Piagetian theory can define the content of instruction for handicapped people, it is the application of the principles of applied behavior analysis that guides the teacher in the systematic arrangement of instructional events necessary to produce behavioral change.
TL;DR: The Home-Oriented Preschool Education (HOPE) experiment is examined, and a currently in-progress long-term follow-up study of it is described as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: The training of intelligence is considered as a component of early interventions. First, major operational indicators of intelligence are examined. Then several representative early interventions of the past 15 years (Head Start, the Milwaukee Project, Lazar's developmental continuity consortium, and the Harvard Preschool Project) are briefly described in terms of their impact on intelligent behavior. The Home-Oriented Preschool Education (HOPE) experiment is examined, and a currently in-progress long-term follow-up study of it is described. New findings are also reported to highlight the particularly favorable impact of HOPE on the functioning of rural preschool children of low ability level. Preliminary results of HOPE's follow-up study are presented for (a) retention in grade and (b) intrapsychic adjustment and interpersonal coping ability. These results are confirming the enduring effects of HOPE up into grades 5 to 9 for children who participated in the study when they were 3-, 4- and 5-year-olds. Fo...