Showing papers in "Language Learning & Technology in 2003"

Blogs and Wikis: Environments for On-Line Collaboration.

Abstract: Language professionals have embraced the world of collaborative opportunities the Internet has introduced. Many tools--e-mail, discussion forums, chat--are by now familiar to many language teachers. Recent innovations--blogs, wikis, and RSS feeds--may be less familiar but offer powerful opportunities for online collaboration for both language professionals and learners. The underlying technology of the new tools is XML ("extensible markup language") which separates content from formatting, encourages use of meta-data, and enables machine processing of Internet documents. The latter is key in the ability to link automatically disparate documents of interest to individuals or groups. The new collaborative opportunities this enables have led some to consider the growing importance of XML as the signal of the arrival of the second-generation Web. FIRST-GENERATION WEB Asynchronous Tools First-generation tools are far from disappearing from the Internet landscape. E-mail continues to be a viable tool for tandem learning and classroom exchanges. Now that most e-mail programs support formatted text and graphics, e-mail is more attractive and versatile than in the days of plain ASCII. Multimedia can now be embedded directly in messages and non-Roman characters are more easily supported. However, many instructors have increasingly turned to discussion forums as the principal tool for written exchanges among class members. Compared to e-mail, discussion forums facilitate group exchanges, and they maintain automatically a log of all messages in a threaded, hierarchical structure. Some instructors find that students consider language structure somewhat more in contributing to discussion forums (as a form of semi-public display) than in writing e-mail (a quick and easy private and informal system). Discussion forums are often seen as an equalizing tool, which encourage universal participation in discussion compared to face-to-face dialogue. It will be interesting to see whether new voice-based forums such as Wimba change that dynamic. Of course, it is the encouragement of peer-to-peer networking and buddy learning, so central to a constructivist learning approach, which has made discussion forums the mainstay of Web courses in most disciplines. Language teachers have found that students at many different levels benefit from the extra writing done in discussion forums and from its use to communicate meaningfully in real contexts. While dedicated software for creating discussion forums exists (such as WWWBoard), many instructors have access to built-in forum creation in a learning management system (LMS) such as WebCT or Blackboard. Features across the different systems are very similar, although the look and feel may differ significantly. Some dedicated products, such as WebCrossing, offer additional add-ons such as polls, live messaging, and enhanced monitoring. Although most commonly used as part of a class, there are certainly uses of forums outside that setting as well, as in learner participation in native speaker forums. For commonly studied languages, there are on-line forums available on a wide variety of topics, often organized by media outlets or interest groups. As one recent study of their use by language learners points out, students need to approach such forums with a good understanding of the conventions used and of the cultural dynamics at work. Synchronous Tools Language learners face even more the issue of knowing rules and conventions when entering chat rooms, whether they be a variation of a MOO or just a generic, text-based chat. Often there are shortcuts and etiquette, which can prove confusing and frustrating to new users. Nevertheless, some language teachers have embraced the use of chat as an effective communication tool. The speed of chat exchanges forces short, spontaneous messages, which more closely mimic spoken exchanges than is the case in discussion forums. …

Artifacts and Cultures-of-use in Intercultural Communication

Abstract: This article develops a conceptual framework for understanding how intercultural communication, mediated by cultural artifacts (i.e., Internet communication tools), creates compelling, problematic, and surprising conditions for additional language learning. Three case studies of computer-mediated intercultural engagement draw together correlations between discursive orientation, communicative modality, communicative activity, and emergent interpersonal dynamics. These factors contribute to varying qualities and quantities of participation in the intercultural partnerships. Case one, "Clashing Frames of Expectation Differing Cultures-of-Use," suggests that the cultures-of-use of Internet communication tools, their perceived existence and on-going construction as distinctive cultural artifacts, differs interculturally just as communicative genre, pragmatics, and institutional context would be expected to differ interculturally. Case two, "Intercultural Communication as Hyperpersonal Engagement," illustrates pragmatic and linguistic development as an outcome of intercultural relationship building. The final case study, "The Wrong Tool for the Right Job?," describes a recent generational shift in communication tool preference wherein an ostensibly ubiquitous tool, e-mail, is shown to be unsuitable for mediating age peer relationships. Taken together, these case studies demonstrate that Internet communication tools are not neutral media. Rather, individual and collective experience is shown to influence the ways students engage in Internet-mediated communication with consequential outcomes for both the processes and products of language development. For some social classes and in highly privileged geographical regions, we have entered into a period of rapid and efficient global communication practices mediating an array of interpersonal, discursivematerial, and cultural activities. Despite the robust connections between the increasing digitization of everyday communicative practice and issues such as globalization and homogenization, Internet-mediated intercultural educational activities remain demonstrably polymorphous. Reasons for this are many. Educational cultures and objectives vary across nation state boundaries (Belz, 2002) as well as across educational institutions within the US. Moreover, within the same university but across courses or time periods, student populations shift, pedagogical goals are reassessed, and micro-interactional phenomena illustrate their own "accentuality" (Volosinov, 1973), even when the task, as it were, is supposed to remain consistent across participants and time (Coughlan & Duff, 1994). The focus of this article is yet another dimension of human heterogeneity -- the cultural embeddedness of Internet communication tools and the consequences of this embedding for communicative activity. Three case studies will be presented which illustrate some of the possibilities and problems associated with foreign language intercultural interaction mediated by Internet communication tools. I argue that Internet communication tools, like all human artifacts, are cultural tools (for an extension of this argument to the natural environment and the social construction of nature, see Braun & Castree, 1998; Harvey, 1996; Williams, 1980). Specifically, I show that e-mail, instant messenger, and forms of synchronous chat, are deeply affected by the cultures-of-use, or to borrow a biological term -- phenotypic characteristics, evolving from the manner in which these tools mediate everyday communicative practice. To unpack this somewhat, most of the American students in the case studies have extensive Internet experience that catalyzes specific forms (and expectations) of communication. In turn, the resulting

Optimal psycholinguistic environments for distance foreign language learning

Abstract: Rational choices among the numerous technological options available for foreign language teaching need to be based, in part, on psycholinguistic considerations. Which technological advances help create an optimal psycholinguistic environment for language learning, and which may be innovative but relatively unhelpful? One potential source of guidance is offered by the 10 methodological principles of Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT; Long, 1985, and elsewhere), each realizable by a variety of pedagogic procedures. Interest in TBLT derives from several sources, including its responsiveness to learners' precisely specified communicative needs, the potential it offers for developing functional language proficiency without sacrificing grammatical accuracy, and its attempt to harmonize the way languages are taught with what SLA research has revealed about how they are learned. TBLT's 10 methodological principles are briefly defined and motivated, and illustrations provided of how the principles can inform choices among technological options in the particular case of distance learning for the less commonly taught languages.

Linguistic Perspectives on the Development of Intercultural Competence in Telecollaboration.

Abstract: It is widely reported (e.g., Belz & Muller-Hartmann, 2002; Kern, 1996; Kinginger, in press; Warschauer & Kern, 2000) that the goals of telecollaborative language study are the development of foreign language (FL) linguistic competence and the facilitation of intercultural competence (e.g., Bausch, Christ, & Krumm, 1997; Bredella & Delanoy, 1999; Byram, 1997; Harden & Witte, 2000). Whereas evaluations of the impact of telecollaboration on FL linguistic competence have been based on structural descriptions of learner discourse from the earliest days of research in this field (e.g., Beauvois, 1992; Chun, 1994; Kelm, 1992; Kern, 1995; Pelletieri, 2000; Sotillo, 2000; Warschauer, 1996), discussions of intercultural competence in the same configuration have been characterized primarily in alinguistic terms. These have included analyst-sensitive content analyses of learner interaction in telecollaboration, post-semester interviews with learners who have participated in telecollaborative projects, and attitudinal surveys of these same learners (e.g., Fischer, 1998; Furstenberg, Levet, English, & Maillet, 2001; Lomicka, 2001; Muller-Hartmann, 1999; von der Emde, Schneider, & Kotter, 2001; Warschauer, 1998; see, however, Belz, 2001; Belz & Muller-Hartmann, 2003). In general, the fields of foreign language learning and teaching (FLLT Martin, 2000; White, 1998), a Hallidayian-inspired linguistic approach to the investigation of evaluative language. The quality of conversation may well be one of the most significant measures of civilization, and when people converse, the interlocutors inevitably realize that civilizations do not clash, contrary to some academic reductionists, the media, and politicians... (Kadir, 2003, p. 9; emphasis added)

Understanding the "other side": intercultural learning in a spanish-english e-mail exchange

Abstract: Intercultural learning is often assumed to be an automatic benefit of e-mail exchanges between groups of learners in different countries, but little research exists on whether on-line intercultural collaboration does actually develop learners' understanding of the other culture's perspective and world view. This paper reviews what recent literature suggests intercultural learning to involve and then reports on a year-long e-mail exchange between Spanish and English second year university language learners. Using the results of qualitative research, the paper identifies key characteristics of e-mail exchanges which helped to develop learners' intercultural communicative competence (Byram, 1997). It also outlines elements of e-mail messages which may enable students to develop successful intercultural relationships with their partners.

Online Learning: Patterns of Engagement and Interaction among In-Service teachers

Abstract: Language teacher education programs attempt to foster collaboration amongst pre-service and in-service teachers. The approach is in place in an online teacher education program in a Midwestern university where the current study was undertaken. Collaborative interactions are an essential element of any pedagogy which assumes that good learning is collaborative and that understanding comes through modeling, participation in, and reaction to the behaviors and thoughts of others. This study was conducted with the following objectives: (a) to analyze the patterns and types of collaborative interactions taking place in three online classes; and (b) to use these findings as a guide in the design of instructional interventions. Our goal is to understand the practice of collaborative teaching and learning so that assistance can be provided to support instructor efforts to include collaborative interactions in their courses. We used Garrison, Anderson, and Archer's (2001) "practical inquiry" model as a framework for the study. Without instructors' explicit guidance and "teaching presence," students were found to engage primarily in "serial monologues." Based on the findings, we propose three intervention strategies that may help instructors increase collaborative interactions in online discussions. INTRODUCTION AND PURPOSE For the past 9 years, the language teacher education department of a large midwestern American university has offered distance education courses, primarily at the graduate level. The main clientele of this online program are in-service teachers. Some participants in online courses in the program have expressed interest in being future online educators themselves. Thus, online courses, such as those discussed in this paper, not only have the responsibility of providing quality teacher education, but also of modeling effective approaches to online instruction. With the rise of Internet technologies, distance courses have migrated to the Web where it is possible to incorporate online discussion as a primary component of the course. One of the issues most troubling to online instructors has been the prevalence of "serial monologues" (Henri, 1991) in asynchronous discussion forums. Serial monologues are discussions in which participants share past teaching experiences and freely express their opinions with minimal effort made to connect to the contributions of others. In this study, we subscribe to Chickering's and Ehrmann's (1996) position that good learning is collaborative and social rather than isolated and competitive. We also accept Bandura's (1971) "social learning theory" which states that understanding comes through modeling, participation in, and reaction to the behaviors and thoughts of others. While Internet technologies can enable greater synchronous and asynchronous collaboration among distance learners, there is still a lack of clarity of what online collaboration is or should be and a lack of knowledge on how to structure and engage in it. An additional challenge to effective collaboration in online courses is that the intended outcomes of collaboration have not been clearly articulated by research and/or experienced in practice. Collaborative interactions, although much touted as a means to effective, deep, and reflective learning online (Hara, Bonk, & Angeli, 2000; Hathorn & Ingram, 2002; Henri, 1992; Henri & Rigault, 1996) leave many instructors and students insecure at best and, at worst, reluctant to engage fully. Thus, we undertook this study with two objectives in mind. First, we wanted to analyze the patterns and types of interactions taking place in online classes. Second, we wanted to use these findings to guide us in the design of instructional interventions that could increase collaboration in these courses. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Language teacher education programs are beginning to foster a pedagogy of collaboration in pre-service and in-service teacher education programs (Kaufman & Brooks, 1996). …

Using Native Speakers in Chat

Abstract: SLA research indicates that negotiation promotes interlanguage development and that learners are most likely to negotiate if opportunities for oral interaction are provided In the case of campusbased students, learners' progress is supported and monitored mainly through classroom interactions If students do not attend classes on campus, how do they gain the reported benefits of oral interaction? Recent studies indicate that chatting provides opportunities for the negotiation of meaning, as occurs in oral interaction However, most of these have been conducted on interactions between learners, with teacher supervision, often in task-based instructional settings This study considers implications for distance language learning of negotiations by a group of intermediate learners of Italian interacting in dyads on a Web based Italian native speaker (NS) chat program The research specifically explores (a) whether live chat with native speakers offers opportunities for negotiation of meaning in open ended tasks carried out in single session interactions with unfamiliar NS without teacher supervision, (b) the principal triggers for negotiation and modification of interlanguage in these interactions, and (c) whether public NS chat rooms are likely to offer an optimal environment for SLA, even for learners studying at a distance who need to chat without supervision Chat logs indicate that learners do in fact negotiate for meaning and modify their interlanguage when engaged in open ended conversational tasks with unfamiliar interlocutors, with lexical and structural difficulties triggering most negotiations Though further research needs to probe whether these negotiations and modifications lead to acquisition in the longer term, they would be particularly valuable for distance learners who need opportunities to negotiate within authentic target language contexts

Negotiation of Meaning and Codeswitching in Online Tandems

Abstract: This paper analyses negotiation of meaning and codeswitching in discourse between 29 language students from classes at a German and a North American university, who teamed up with their peers to collaborate on projects whose results they had to present to the other groups in the MOO during the final weeks of the project. From October to December 1998, these learners, who formed a total of eight groups, met twice a week for 75 minutes in MOOssiggang MOO, a textbased environment that can be compared to chatrooms, but which also differs from these in several important respects. The prime objective of the study was to give those students who participated in the online exchanges a chance to meet with native speakers of their target language in real time and to investigate if the concept of tandem learning as promoted by initiatives like the International Tandem Network could be successfully transferred from e-mail-based discourse to a format in which the learners could interact with each other in real time over a computer network. An analysis of electronic transcripts from eight successive meetings between the teams suggests that online tandem does indeed work even if the learners have to respond more quickly to each other than if they had communicated with their partners via electronic mail. Yet a comparison of the data (184,000 running words) with findings from research on the negotiation of meaning in face-to-face discourse also revealed that there was a marked difference between conversational repair in spoken interactions and in the MOO-based exchanges. This paper discusses potential reasons for these differences, investigates the learners' exploitation of the bilingual format of their exchange, and thereby attempts to demonstrate how online tandems can contribute to successful second language acquisition (SLA) and the development of learners' metalinguistic abilities.

A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum: Electronic Discussion and Foreign Language Learning.

Abstract: Amongst the opportunities for cross-cultural contact created by the burgeoning use of the Internet are those provided by electronic discussion lists. This study looks at what happens when language students venture out of the classroom (virtual or otherwise) to participate in on-line discussion groups with native speakers. Responses to messages and commentary by moderators and other participants on the (in)appropriateness of contributions allow us to determine what constitutes successful participation and to make suggestions regarding effective teaching strategies for this medium. A case study examines the threads started by four anglophone students of French when they post messages to a forum on the Web site of the French newspaper Le Monde. Investigation of these examples points to the ways in which electronic discussion inflects and is inflected by cultural and generic expectations. We suggest that successful participation on Internet fora depends on awareness of such cultural and generic mores and an ability to work within and/or with them. Teachers therefore need to find ways in which students can be sensitized to such issues so that their participation in such electronic discussion is no longer seen as linguistic training, but as engagement with a cultural practice. A TALE (with apologies to Beatrix Potter) Once upon a time there were four letter-writers and their names were Fleurie, Laura, Eleanor, and David. They hopped onto the Net from Britain and the USA and clicked their way across Le Monde (or more precisely, its on-line discussion pages). Fleurie and Eleanor, who were good little students, looked for pen-pals in order to improve their French, whereas Laura and David were much more concerned by vigorous debates about racism and cultural imperialism. In fact, David didn't even manage to write in French. Yet it was Laura and David who were warmly welcomed to stay and contribute, while Fleurie and Eleanor left, apparently discouraged. As teachers of French, concerned to encourage use of that language by our students, this looks at first glance to be the kind of tale we would not want them to be reading. Our recalcitrant hero is not reprimanded -- hardly an edifying moral conclusion -- and dutifulness goes unrewarded. Why does the story end this way and what can be learnt from it? In this article, we situate our case study in the wider context of task design of on-line activities. We then analyze the strategies and practices of the four message writers in order to derive lessons about the use of electronic discussion in language learning, lessons that underscore the crucial role of genre in intercultural communication. THE BORDERLESS WORLD? Language learning provides fertile ground for the co-existence of two contradictory views of Internet use. On the one hand, there is the idea of the borderless world where the Internet flattens out cultural

Designing Task-Based CALL To Promote Interaction: En busca de Esmeraldas

Abstract: Developing effective language teaching materials based on second language acquisition principles is a priority which needs to be addressed in all language teaching areas. The field of computer-assisted language learning (CALL) is no exception. "En Busca de Esmeraldas" is a CALL activity delivered via the Internet and based on principles of language teaching (Doughty & Long, 2002; Long, in press) and on Chapelle's (1998) proposals for developing multimedia, grounded in SLA research. The first part of this article presents the steps necessary for designing an effective language learning tool to foster communication and negotiation, taking into consideration the importance of supporting integral education, using tasks, providing elaborated input and feedback, and promoting collaborative learning. The second part of the article reports on a study conducted using such a tool to determine whether communication and negotiation occurred, and whether the negotiation was similar to that reported in previous studies that claim such negotiation facilitates the comprehension process.

Collaborative e-mail exchange for teaching secondary esl: a case study in hong kong

Abstract: This article presents data from a qualitative case study examining secondary ESL students' attitudes toward and perceptions of a collaborative e-mail exchange between a Form 4 (10 th grade) ESL class in Hong Kong and an 11 th grade English class in Iowa. The exchange was based on a researcher-designed instructional model, utilizing widely accepted theories and methods for modern second language instruction: cooperative learning, communicative language learning, process writing, project-based learning, and an integrated approach. After exposure to the exchange, Hong Kong students were questioned about (a) changes in attitude towards computers and language learning; (b) effect of computer background on attitude, interest, and motivation; (c) perception of their acquired reading, writing, speaking, and listening skills; and (d) attitude towards cooperative learning. Data was collected primarily from pre- and post-model surveys and personal interviews. The majority of Hong Kong participants said they enjoyed the exchange, gained general confidence in English and computer skills, and felt that they made significant progress in writing, thinking, and speaking. They were, however, ambivalent as to whether it improved standardized exam-related skills such as grammar usage and discrete language functions. As the project progressed, students with strong computer skills indicated less satisfaction than those with weak computer skills.

Flexibility and Interaction at a Distance: A Mixed-Mode Environment for Language Learning

Abstract: This article reports on the process of design and development of two language courses for university students at beginning levels of competence. Following a preliminary experience in a low-tech environment for distance language learning and teaching, and a thorough review of the available literature, we identified two major challenges that would need to be addressed in our design: (1) a necessity to build sufficient flexibility into the materials to cater to a variety of learners' styles, interests and skill levels, therefore sustaining learners' motivation; and (2) a need to design materials that would present the necessary requisites of authenticity and interactivity identified in the examined literature, in spite of the reduced opportunities for face-to-face communication. In response to these considerations, we designed and developed learning materials and tasks to be distributed on CD-ROM, complemented by a WebCT component for added interactivity and task authenticity. Although only part of the original design was implemented, and further research is needed to assess the impact of our environment on learning outcomes, the results of preliminary evaluations are encouraging.

Crossing boundaries: multimedia technology and pedagogical innovation in a high school class

Abstract: Although much has been written on computer technology and its potential for changing pedagogical practice, relatively little attention has been given as to how teachers' conceptualizations of teaching and other contextual factors relate to their actual use of these technologies. The present paper focuses on an innovative program in a Quebec high school, involving project-based teaching in networked classrooms equipped with laptop computers. One ESL language arts and two French content teachers' use of computer technology is discussed in relation to their conceptualizations of teaching and the way in which the pedagogical innovations featured in this program were supported by the broader social context. The discussion of pedagogical innovation is situated within sociocultural theory, notably in Engestrom's notion of an activity system and Tharp's views on the relationship between reform and the alignment of activity settings. Implications for language learning are addressed in terms of the affordances created within the context of this particular program. More generally, the paper argues for a vision of language learning and teaching wherein language is viewed more broadly in semiotic terms and computer technology is viewed as a representational resource within a multiliteracy pedagogy.

Meeting the needs of distance learners

Abstract: This study draws on the experience of a cohort of 22 multinational and multilingual students enrolled in a Master in Education (MEd) distance learning program administered by a British university. It's purpose is to locate the aims and philosophies of distance learning within the experiences of actual distance learners in order to see if learners' needs were being met by the program and to obtain a fuller understanding of core aspects of distance education. The study found that students were, on the whole, satisfied with the course materials, the choice of modules, assignment feedback, and length of time given to complete the assignments, but significant problems surfaced regarding issues of student support, and access to and provision of resource materials. Arguably, these are issues intrinsic to the successful provision of distance learning courses, and the results both concord with aspects of the research literature (Burge & Howard, 1990; Chen, 1997; Hyland, 2001; Morgan, 1995; Robinson, 1995; Simpson, 2000; Tait, 2000) and raise some interesting questions regarding the provision of distance education and its ability to meet the needs of learners.

Internet audio communication for second language learning: a comparative review of six programs

Abstract: A vast and largely untapped resource for second language learners has recently become available: native speakers of languages being learned who have access to the Internet. To explore the potential of this new resource for second language learning, we reviewed six free programs for Windows and Macintosh computers that permit synchronous audio (and some video) communication via the Internet. It was found that although the audio (and video) quality varied both among and within the programs reviewed, the communicative contexts created by these programs can provide second language learners with an inexpensive means for useful audio interaction with native speakers of their second language. We provide recommendations for program choice according to user needs and preferences, with an emphasis on tandem language learning, a context in which participants take turns being both second language learner and tutor of their native language. It should be quite obvious to anyone living in a technologically developed country today that the widespread availability of personal computers and the Internet have brought about dramatic changes in the way that we communicate. The use of electronic mail is the most obvious way in which our communicative behavior has changed over the last two decades. Instant messaging systems are also gaining widespread use with the integration of the Internet into various wireless devices such as portable telephones. However, none of these computer-mediated communication media has yet had a major impact on second language (L2) teaching and learning. There are certainly many instructors and students who make use of foreign-language materials on the Internet; and there are numerous foreign-language courses that make use of the World Wide Web. But there remains a vast and largely untapped Internet resource for L2 teachers and learners that has recently become available, namely, audio access to native speakers of the L2. Native speakers who use the Internet comprise a particularly valuable resource for L2 learners since a major barrier to the development of L2 listening and speaking proficiency is the lack of opportunity to converse with native speakers of the target language. A high school student of French in Iowa is not likely to have much, if any, opportunity to use French outside the French classroom. However, there are millions of native French speakers throughout the world, many of whom have Internet access and would welcome the opportunity to interact with English-speaking French learners in exchange for the opportunity to converse in English with a native speaker. There have been several projects that have used the Internet to link second language learners with native speakers, but for the most part these efforts have been limited to text communication (Belz, 2002; Blake, 2000; Gonzalez-Bueno, 1998; Negretti, 1999; Ortega, 1997; Toyoda & Harrison, 2002). One project that made use of synchronous audio and video to link second language learners with native speakers (Wong & Fauverge, 1999) was apparently successful in motivating students and providing a rich context for conversing in the second language. In Europe, researchers, teachers, and students have been involved in eTandem Europa (www.slf.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/etandem) in which telephone and Internet audio have

From the Special Issue Editor

Abstract: It is a genuine pleasure to introduce this special issue of Language Learning & Technology on telecollaborative foreign language study. Telecollaboration involves the application of global computer networks to foreign (and second) language learning and teaching in institutionalized settings. In telecollaborative partnerships, internationally-dispersed learners in parallel language classes use Internet communication tools such as e-mail, synchronous chat, threaded discussion, and MOOs (as well as other forms of electronically mediated communication), in order to support social interaction, dialogue, debate, and intercultural exchange. The underlying rationale for this learning configuration is to provide the participants with cost-effective access to and engagement with representatives of the respective "languaculture" (Agar, 1994) under study. Telecollaboration might be of particular value for those students who may otherwise not have the opportunity for meaningful (teacher-guided) interaction with persons from other cultures. In sum, telecollaboration is characterized by institutionalized, electronically mediated intercultural communication under the guidance of a languacultural expert (i.e., a teacher) for the purposes of foreign language learning and the development of intercultural competence. In this issue, we bring you four articles which report telecollaborative exchanges between groups of students at institutions located in England, France, Germany, Spain, and the United States. While the reported partnerships span the globe in terms of the geographical locations of the participating students, the scholarly interpretations of their outcomes similarly run the gamut in terms of theoretical approaches to foreign language learning and teaching. In the first contribution, "Artifacts and Cultures-of-Use in Intercultural Communication," Steven L. Thorne examines the impact of culturally embedded uses of particular Internet communication tools on the outcome of telecollaboration from a cultural-historical perspective (e.g., Bruner, 1995; Rommetveit, 1974). Thorne argues that Internet communication tools are not mere conduits for the facilitation of telecollaborative exchanges; instead, they and their corresponding cultures-of-use co-evolve over time in response to cultural, individual, and collective historical factors. By examining three French-American partnerships over a period of 5 years, Thorne demonstrates how e-mail and Instant Messenger co-evolve with respect to their users and, most importantly, how these developments influence intercultural communication and personal relationship building in the exchanges under study. In the next article, "Linguistic Perspectives on the Development of Intercultural Competence in Telecollaboration," Julie A. Belz presents one of the first linguistically grounded interpretations of the development of intercultural competence in telecollaboration. Drawing on the relatively unsuccessful experiences of two Germans and one American in a Penn State-Gie[beta]en exchange, Belz examines the "attitudes" component of Byram's (1997) model of intercultural competence from the theoretical perspective of systemic functional linguistics (Halliday, 1994; Martin, 2000; White, 1998). In such an investigation, the analytical emphasis shifts from what learners say in telecollaboration to how they say it, since linguistic form is thought to be semiotic of attitudinal positioning. Belz concludes her study by suggesting that the importance of the teacher increases rather than diminishes in telecollaborative language learning because, in the text-only media of email and chat, he or she must be educated to discern, identify, explain, and model culturally-contingent patterns of interaction in the absence of paralinguistic meaning signals. Robert O'Dowd also examines the development of intercultural competence (Byram, 1997) in his contribution to the special issue, "Understanding the Other Side: Intercultural Learning in a Spanish-English E-Mail Exchange;" however, he explores the degree of intercultural learning in a range of intercultural dyads, rather than focusing on one relatively unsuccessful set of keypals. …

E-Books and the Tablet PC.

Abstract: Recently introduced computer hardware, the Tablet PC, has sparked renewed interest in electronic texts or e-books, as they are most commonly called. This new hybrid of laptop computer and PDA (personal digital assistant), which features a writing tablet and stylus-based input/navigation, offers compelling advantages for reading and writing texts, including interesting possibilities for working with non-Roman writing systems. The addition of wireless networking, integrated into most models, provides intriguing opportunities for collaborative and classroom use. Texts to Go Electronic versions of texts have a long history in the digital age. Michael Hart began his Gutenberg project in 1971, with the goal of creating a widely-available library of texts of all kinds in plain text format. Similar Gutenberg projects have since been introduced in other countries, notably in Germany and Australia. Electronic text centers, such as those at the University of Virginia and Columbia University, have created extensive collections of electronic texts accessible over the Internet. There have been long-term projects for making available digitized versions of texts other than English, such as the ARTFL French literature project or the Perseus classics collection. In the mid-1990's, the exponential growth of the Internet and the introduction of new formats and devices for reading texts created media buzz about ebooks with predictions of the imminent demise of the printed page. Subsequently, however, disappointing sales, the dotcom bust, and the failure of experiments such as Stephen King's serial publication of The Plant dampened enthusiasm for the promised revolution in publishing. E-book vendors and apostles, however, continue to tout the supremacy of digital over print texts, emphasizing the ability to search and annotate, the portability (thousands of text on a disk), and the instant access (through downloading). For many consumers these benefits do not outweigh the major drawback of e-books--the user-friendliness and familiarity of print when compared with electronic devices. For most people reading a text on paper is always preferable to reading the same text on a digital display of any kind. The availability of desirable texts has been another problematic issue. What is widely circulated for free on the Internet are works in the public domain, not current bestsellers (although bootleg copies abound). The recent extensions of copyright in the United States and Europe further limit copyright-free texts. Given the experience of the music industry, publishers have not been eager to release their lists in digital format, for fear of Napster or Gnutella like distribution of copyrighted works. Software companies and e-book vendors have in recent years found ways to restrict usage of purchased ebooks which satisfy many publishers. As a result, e-book titles of many recent publications are now offered for sale on amazon.com and Barnes and Noble, both of which have recently experienced significant growth. The on-line vendor ebooks.com (Australia) has also experienced fast growth in the past year. Formats The e-books available for sale are usually offered in several different formats. In fact, the proliferation of different--and mutually incompatible--e-book formats have been one of the major inhibitors of more widespread acceptance. While e-books can be created in formats such as plain text or HTML, which are non-proprietary, universally accessible, and easy to produce, these formats do not offer much flexibility in terms of display, organization, and searchability. Nor do they provide for the digital rights management (DRM) publishers demand. The formats most used today by commercial e-book providers are Microsoft Reader, Adobe eBook, and Palm Doc. All provide for rights management and restricted access (although managed in different ways), and allow for sophisticated formatting and display options. …

Tools for Distance Education: Towards Convergence and Integration

Abstract: Interest in the remote delivery of language instruction has increased significantly in recent years. As the Internet has displaced synchronous video as the preferred platform for distance education, the dramatically lower cost and more modest technical requirements of Web delivery make it a feasible option for a much broader range of educational institutions. More broadband connections along with the widespread availability of DVD players allow for incorporation of high-quality video into distance ed courses, while new Internet audio tools make two-way voice communications possible. The power and flexibility of the XML programming environment, now widely deployed on the Internet, make new convergences of educational and entertainment environments possible. New Web Options Web environments for distance learning can be custom-created from scratch or built using an interface supplied by a Learning Management System (LMS). A custom-built project offers the greatest amount of flexibility while avoiding the temptation to follow a pre-conceived plan for the structure of the course. On the other hand, this route makes higher demands on design and programming and thus increases cost and development time. A good number of course sites use Macromedia Director or Authorware to create content and Flash for delivery of animations and multimedia. Dreamweaver (Macromedia) and FrontPage (Microsoft) facilitate not only the creation of Web pages, but also enable addition of JavaScript interactivity through pull-down menus. To be used effectively, these tools need not just programming skill (to varying degrees) but--just as importantly--an understanding of Web design and user interface issues. A key advantage of using an LMS is the built-in course framework, a template-based system into which content is added. For distance learning, an LMS can supply crucial communication and management tools, as well as assessment builders and gradebook functionality. Although the most widely used LMS are Blackboard and WebCT, new less-expensive but still highly effective options exist. ETUDES, from Foothill College offers an easy-to-use interface for distance learning and has features comparable to Blackboard (and scores higher in Web accessibility). The Manila environment, part of Userland Frontier, is innovative and powerful groupware which excels at creating a multi-user writing environment. It allows new information to be easily posted to a weblog. For some purposes Manila may work better than WebCT. One of the most welcome Web products for language learning is Wimba, which allows for creation of a variety of voice-enabled Web pages, including voice boards which use the familiar format of threaded discussion forums for the exchange of recorded messages. Wimba is being widely used in the US in language learning, for example, at the University of Arizona to supplement use of a MOO in teaching Mohave. Its use as an "online language lab" is especially useful for less commonly taught languages, with scarce local availability of native speakers. The variety of functions available in Wimba's WebLab could be used together as the core functions of a Web-delivered language class. LMS excel at course and user management but they are not strong in content creation. Course developers often create structured content outside the LMS using a mainstream multimedia authoring program or programming environment, then link to that content from inside the LMS shell. The disadvantage of this approach is the lack of functional and interface integration with the LMS. Recently, both Blackboard and WebCT have opened up their proprietary systems to plug-ins and add-ons, which extend the system functionality while retaining the familiar user interface and authoring conventions. One of the more powerful content creation tools, available for both of the leading LMS, is Lectora from Trivantis. Lectora enables creation of sophisticated learning modules which incorporate multimedia, branching, and assessments. …

Interactive and Multimedia Technologies in Online Language Lessons: A Sampler

Abstract: While one might think the definition of distance education would be simple enough, the concept and justification of learning over distances are actually under continual debate (Distance Education Clearinghouse, 2003). There are probably as many explanations and rationales of distance learning as there are sites and modes of offering it in its various forms: eg., self-directed study or teacher-guided coursework available only online, surmounting geographical barriers. In many ways, foreign language (FL) study seems a natural candidate for distance learning, one major goal being the connection of language learners with target language input and native speakers, which are often a great distance away. Digital technologies have advanced to such a point that this distance no longer presents much difficulty, even though it physically still exists. A myriad of distance language learning sites can be found online, and some are quite good from both a pedagogical and a technological perspective. The fundamental skills that students need to learn to use a language come through communicative interactions, through the example of a teacher/model who can speak the language proficiently, and through lots of reflective practice that depends on meaningful feedback. The success of self-study materials claiming to teach foreign languages suggests that the desire to learn new languages outside the classroom setting is widespread. That publishers tend to sell many more of these materials for the very early stages of language learning suggests that motivation often drops off as the difficulty of the task, especially without the support of a teacher, becomes apparent to the naive learner. More and more online materials for learning new languages implement interactive activities that attempt to compensate to some extent for the lack of a teacher's physical presence and support. Authors of such materials do not claim to do the job better than a teacher in a face to face learning environment, but they do fill an important niche for those who cannot get to a class but who are trying to get a start on a new language or review one that has been studied in the past. In this column we will examine some of the techniques used in a variety of these sites for learning several languages. The lessons featured were chosen for their quality, the variety of technical features, range of pedagogical techniques, and selection of languages taught. (n.b. This article shows how a number of teachers are using Web technologies to teach language, but it does not seek explain how to produce these techniques in one's own Web page. Because of this, the interactive samples that the authors have included in this article are designed to perform only the specific functions presented. They were programmed by the authors only for illustrative purposes, not for tutorial purposes, and do not necessarily work in the same way as those found on the pages being discussed. If you wish to analyze the technical methods used in order to learn how to design similar activities, be sure to study the original code, JavaScript, objects, ASP, and so forth, from those pages rather than the code used in this article.) One of the most interesting collections of interactive language activities is the Spanish Grammar Exercises site by Barbara Kuczun Nelson at Colby College [ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] http://www.colby.edu/~bknelson/exercises/ The "!Que miedo pase!" module on this site is an excellent example of the integration of a number of different techniques guided by sound pedagogical principles directed towards clear communicative and grammatical goals. The student watches a short video in Quicktime format in which a woman tells a story about something that happened to her at her job. The pre-listening introduction sets the scene and presents enough context so the student is prepared to listen (Omaggio Hadley, 2001; Shrum & Glisan, 2000). …

Tele-Collaborative Projects: Monsters.com?.

Abstract: Collaborative projects are a natural for the language class because all language is fundamentally communicative and collaboration requires real communication to work By creating an environment in which students want to communicate in a creative manner about something that is personally interesting to them, we can encourage writing in which the students' true goal is to get an idea across rather than just to complete the assignment (Hadley, 2001; Shrum & Glisan, 2000) In this column we examine a project that brought together elementary and middle school students in France and Canada as well as a Basque school to communicate about a topic of concern to any child who has heard a fairy tale or watched a Disney movie, MONSTERS! It is hoped that other teachers may use this project as a model for similar collaborative efforts, and to this end we mention several other useful tools as well Dessinez-moi un Monstre! (Draw me a Monster!) is a collaborative project coordinated by Jane Scaplen of Sacred Heart Elementary School, Marystown, Terre-Neuve, Canada Students of French in grades 3 to 8 from over 20 different schools participated in writing about their invented monsters, sharing their descriptions, and drawing each other's creations An innovative aspect of this project is the use of the Internet as the medium for interaction, allowing more students to participate and so reap the benefits of the communication while at the same time motivating the participants by providing a larger audience with whom to share their work Students thus have the excitement of knowing that their descriptions will come alive at the hands of someone who has carefully read their work for its content and in order to actually do something with it In addition, this person may live in a different part of the world In this way, the activity brings together the interdisciplinary components of language, art, and technology The site for the project is divided into three sections: Renseignements Participants Monstres These include a detailed explanation of the projet and instructions for teachers and students, a listing of the participating schools, and the children's work, both descriptions and drawings The Project The project is set up to take place over a period of a little more than 3 months with specific dates for registering as a participant, sending in the texts and drawings, and comparing the descriptions and one's own work with the original concept of the monster's creator and receiving a certificate of participation The description of the project clearly sets forth the activities of the participants so that the children and teachers know exactly what is expected of them and what will happen throughout the course of the activity: Les participants ecrivent des descriptions et font des dessins de monstres Ils nous envoient ensuite les descriptions pour etre preparees et affichees sur une page Web Les descriptions seront aussi envoyees a chaque participant Personne ne va voir les vrais dessins jusqu'a la fin du projet Pendant la periode du 7 avril au 25 avril, les participants seront invites a essayer a dessiner des monstres d'autres participants selon les descriptions fournies A la fin, les dessins originaux seront affiches Each participating student writes a description and provides a drawing of a monster The coordinator resends these descriptions to all participants via e-mail and also places them on the Web where everyone can read them and try his or her hand at drawing the monster to fit the description At the end of the project, the original drawing by the monster's creator is distributed to all and also placed on the page so that all of the students can compare their drawings to the original To accomodate individual needs, there is also flexibility in the level of participation for a class that might not have time to devote to the entire range of project activities: Une classe peut decider de participer a plusieurs niveaux: 1 …

Foreign Language Study and the Brain

Abstract: Many foreign language teachers wishing to keep up with current ideas for improving their teaching based on research findings may not be able to attend professional conferences as often as they might wish. Web-based presentations may be a possible alternative to attending a live presentation on a particular topic. While such Web presentations certainly do not replace conferences, they can represent an additional and worthwhile avenue of access to current information and ideas, especially for those teachers who live far from the typical conference venue and who receive little financial support for professional development. Foreign Language Study and the Brain, a site created and maintained by Dr. Teresa Kennedy of the University of Idaho, is a good place to start for those foreign language (FL) educators who wish to find out more about how the brain works and how those workings relate to second language acquisition. The goal of this Web site is stated clearly on the home page: Historical brain research, combined with a review of effective foreign language methodology and research, provides a framework that teachers can utilize to incorporate brain-sensitive activities that foster memory storage and language retrieval. Recent research about the brain, general recommendations for classroom teaching and assorted activities are provided on this Web site. The site, in English and Spanish, is part of the University of Idaho Virtual Campus. The material presented is organized by a clickable line at the bottom of the home page: [ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] A brief synopsis of the material contained each section will provide the reader with an idea of what resources can be found at this site. Brain Research in the Foreign Language Classroom Several general resources about the brain and learning appear in this section. These give the reader access to background on the topic from the viewpoints of neuroscience, general pedagogy, and foreign language pedagogy. Links include two to books that deal with brain studies and teaching: Brain Topics: A Handbook for Teachers and Parents and How People Learn. Both works address issues of interest to classroom teachers such as brain functioning, how to design an optimal learning environment, and strategies for teacher learning to name a few. They also provide ample bibliographies for those wishing to delve further into this subject. The article Summarizing Concepts about Teacher Education, Learning and Neuroscience calls for teacher education researchers to begin to associate with their neuroscience colleagues. The link to Brain Research and Education offers many articles for and by educators that appear both in scholarly journals and in the public press. In terms of research specific to second language learning, we find essays on early language learning and language learning after puberty. …

Review of Pronunciación y Fonética, version 2.1

Abstract: Name of Product Pronunciacion y Fonetica, version 2.1 Patricia V. Lunn, Michigan State University (program author) Claire Bradin and Dennie Hoopingarner (software designers) Daniel Park and Madhu Sridharan (software developers) Distributor Instructional Media Center Michigan State University Contact Information P.O. Box 710 East Lansing, MI 48826-0710 Tel: (517) 353-9229 Fax: (517) 432-2650 http://msuvmall.msu.edu/imc System Requirements MacIntosh PowerPC or Windows95/98/NT no intallation required Support Offered Support available from CLEAR staff at (517)-432-2286 or clear@msu.edu Target Language Spanish Target Audience Majors or minors with at least a high-intermediate level of Spanish proficiency; teachers of Spanish phonology and phonetics Price $25 + s/h The program contains 10 lessons, written in Spanish, on Spanish pronunciation and phonetics. As mentioned in the program, the student learns how Spanish sounds differ among themselves and how such differences may serve to distinguish one word from another. She also learns to recognize Spanish sounds and produce them (the program allows the student the opportunity to record her voice during certain exercises). The student studies some of the dialects of Spanish and learns how the study of phonetics can facilitate the comprehension and the classification of Spanish dialects. The 10 lessons are as follows, their length indicated by the number of screens they entail: Syllable (25 screens) Stress (20 screens) Phoneme (13 screens) Vowels: description (9 screens) Vowels: pronunciation (10 screens) Consonants: description (15 screens) Consonants: pronunciation (27 screens) Orthography (13 screens) Dialects (23 screens) Review (18 screens) The lessons are organized on a menu screen with color-coded buttons. For example, la silaba (syllable) is written on a red button. Clicking on the button takes one to the lesson on the syllable, which entails 25 screens of explanation and practice. Navigation arrows on the right of each screen allow the student to move from one screen to another. Also on the right of the screen are a menu button and an exit button. DETAILED LESSON: THE SYLLABLE The first lesson on the Menu screen, la silaba, is reviewed in detail, to give the reader a sense of what a student or teacher sees and does when completing an entire lesson. Summaries for the other nine lessons appear below. The description of this lesson's content and procedures is organized screen by screen. Screen 1 Rhythm is said to be the basis for pronunciation. Each language has its own rhythm. When an English speaker speaks Spanish with English rhythm, she has a foreign accent. Spanish rhythm is examined. Screen 2 Spanish rhythm is based on the syllable. Each syllable has a vowel nucleus. A vowel constitutes a syllable, and it may also constitute a word. Sentences with the five vowels used as words are given in bold, indicating they have a sound file (e.g., No voy a clase). Screen 3 A vowel may be accompanied by another vowel in the syllable or by a preceding or following consonant. Monosyllabic words exemplifying this fact are given in bold for the student to click on and listen to (e.g., rey, tres, ay, lo). Screen 4 A distinction between a letter (orthography) and a sound (phonetics) is made. Three words in bold exemplify the difference between spelling and sound representation: casa [kasa], hora [ora], voy [boj]. …

Extending the Scope of Tele-Collaborative Projects

Abstract: A commentary inspired by Jean W. LeLoup & Robert Ponterio's "tele-collaborative projects: monsters.com?" (Language Learning & Technology, Volume 7, Number 2) At its best, the Web provides a stimulating source of language teaching ideas. Indeed, no sooner had I finished reading LeLoup and Ponterio's article, I was browsing Jane Scalpen's home page and thinking of ways in which tele-collaborative projects like her Dessinez-moi un Monstre! (Draw me a Monster!) can be extended through the use of cooperative and collaborative language learning methods. There are two reasons for doing this. First, given a stronger theoretical and practical foundation, language learning outcomes can be more easily set and monitored. Second, from a sound pedagogical base, it is hoped that even greater language learning value can be extracted from the Information and Communications Technology (ICT) used. To recall, Dessinez-moi un Monstre! is a class-based, interdisciplinary project that is designed to exploit the Internet as a medium of interaction. Following the registration of students as participants in the project, descriptions and drawings of a monster are prepared and sent to the project coordinator. Subsequently, the written texts are redistributed to other project participants who are tasked to draw the monster in question from the description provided. Scope is also provided for learners to write descriptions based on original drawings. The project ends with the participants comparing their texts and/or drawings with the creators' originals posted on specially prepared Web pages. EVALUATION Students' work on Scalpen's Web site provides evidence of imagination and active participation. Dessinez-moi un Monstre! comes across as a fun project that extends the boundaries of the physical classroom by providing a technology-based platform for language practice. However, I am inclined to call projects of this nature "simple" because they are restricted largely to the exchange and sharing of information. I do not mean to criticise these interactions. Rather, my intention is to show how even more can be done to motivate students and give prominence to the language learning aspects of telecollaborative work. EXTENDING THE SCOPE OF SIMPLE TELE-COLLABORATIVE LANGUAGE LEARNING PROJECTS The possibilities for extending the scope of simple tele-collaborative projects are grouped below under cooperative and collaborative learning methods. My suggestions build on the Dessinez-moi un Monstre! guidelines but they could equally apply to other topic areas and contexts. Assuming that participants are not restricted to producing individual work, my ideas involve them working in small groups. Cooperative Learning Methods Cooperative learning methods, as originally conceived by Slavin (1983), provide ways for students not only to be responsible for their own learning but also for that of their groupmates by working towards the achievement of group goals. Kohonen (1992) explains with respect to cooperative language learning that, since all members ... share a common goal, they are motivated to work together for mutual benefit in order to maximize their own and each other's learning. This creates a positive interdependence among the learners: they perceive that they can reach their goals best when others in the same learning group also do as well as possible. (pp. 33-34) In order to maximize the learning potential of Dessinez-moi un Monstre!, it is necessary to "top and tail" the various activities. This is done by placing them within a larger scheme or unit of work. For instance, prior to the Internet-based practice, classroom language input could involve students building their active vocabulary store of body parts, physical attributes, and so forth. Other preparatory sessions could focus on the organization and distinctive grammar of descriptions. …

From the Special Issue Editor

Abstract: Welcome to the LLT Special Issue on Distance Learning. I am pleased to introduce this special issue which focuses on the important and timely topic of distance language learning. Few topics have received more discussion and attention recently among educators, administrators, and funding agencies than distance learning. At a time when technology is developing at a rapid pace, educators are struggling with the best ways to integrate technology into the learning experience. Distance learning has been impacted tremendously by recent developments in computer and Internet technology. Rapid technological development of media such as interactive Web pages, live chats, MOOs, and discussion boards, have transformed distance learning into a unique mode of instruction with its own emerging methodology. As a result of this tremendous influx of technological resources, researchers, administrators, and instructors are struggling with how to make the best use of the plethora of choices available to them for the delivery of distance education. For language teachers, this has been an especially challenging struggle given the special needs of language learners. In the first article in this special issue, "Optimal Psycholinguistic Environments for Distance Foreign Language Learning," Doughty and Long directly address the problem of identifying the best uses of technology for the distance learner of language. The authors point out that all language instruction, distance or otherwise, needs to provide an environment that best facilitates the acquisition of language based on what has been learned from SLA research. What we know about how language is learned and how language learning can best be supported in the classroom should be a guiding force in our decisions regarding how to choose the best technological options for an optimal learning environment. In the second article, "Flexibility and Interaction at a Distance: A Mixed-Mode Environment for Language Learning," Strambi and Bouvet discuss the development and implementation of two beginning-level university language courses in French and Italian. Using the psycholinguistic, affective, and logistical needs of distance learners as guiding principles, course developers sought to create a distance course that best supports language learning. Using a CD-ROM for interactive course materials as well as the course management and communication tools available through WebCT, the course developers designed a course that sought to better address the needs of the learners than the previous, low-tech, version of the courses. Despite problems with WebCT that prevented the course instructors from making use of this component of the course, students reported positive attitudes about their experiences in the distance course. While the psycholinguistic impact of this course was not investigated in terms of language proficiency gains, the positive attitudes expressed by the students indicate that their affective and logistical challenges were addressed with the design and implementation of the courses. In the next article, "Meeting the Needs of Distance Learners," Sampson explores the specific needs and attitudes of multinational and multilingual students enrolled in a Masters of Education hybrid distance learning program. The students were situated in Hong Kong and participated in courses offered by a British University. In addition to their distance learning and self study of the material, students participated in face-toface seminars at their home site of Hong Kong, used local resources, and were assigned a local tutor with whom they interacted about their progress. …