Showing papers in "Oxford Journal of Archaeology in 2016"

The Macro-Regional Scale of Silver Production in Iberia During the First Millennium BC in the Context of Mediterranean Contacts

Abstract: The extraction of silver has traditionally been considered as one of the main incentives for the Phoenician expansion throughout the Mediterranean and their settlement in Iberia. In this paper, we approach the organization of silver production in Iberia during the Early Iron Age through the study of the evidence of production currently available and the development of Lead Isotope Analysis (LIA). Previous results (Hunt 2003; Stos Gale 2001; Kassianidou 1992) are considered in the light of new data. The extraction of silver from complex minerals noticeably intensifies in south-west Iberia. Imports of exogenous lead, needed for the extraction of silver from these complex minerals, are evident. Supplies of lead come in from other regions of Iberia, such as Gador, Cartagena/Mazarron, Linares or even the mining district of Molar-Belmunt-Falset (MBF) in Catalonia. This picture reveals that the organization of silver production was much more complex than initially thought, with the articulation of an exchange network of raw materials at a macro-territorial scale embracing almost all Iberia. The socioeconomic implications that control of these networks of lead distribution could have had are also discussed.

Facilitating Interaction: Board Games as Social Lubricants in the Ancient Near East

Abstract: Summary This re-evaluation of existing data on board games from the Near Eastern Bronze Age demonstrates their function as social lubricants in cross-cultural interaction. Board games are situated theoretically as liminoid practices, which lie outside the bounds of normative social behaviour and allow for interaction across social boundaries. Utilizing double-sided game boards, with an indigenous game on one side and a newly introduced game on the other, the games of senet, mehen and twenty squares provide evidence for social interactions. Cypriots had adopted Egyptian mehen and senet by the third millennium BC, and indigenized the games. This lies in contrast to the game of twenty squares, which had a particular role among elites in the Late Bronze Age interaction sphere. This anthropological discussion of evidence relating to gaming seeks to inspire further research on the role of board games in society.

Social Stratification in the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages: An Intra‐Site Investigation at Megiddo

Abstract: Summary The article presents an intra-site investigation of the Strata VIIA and VIA faunal remains at Megiddo, Israel, which date to the LB III and late Iron I respectively. We examined social disparity between the populations of two areas of the city. Our finds indicate a difference in social status and division of labour: a dichotomy between producer-consumers and consumers, who most probably interacted. Viewed in light of other types of remains at Megiddo, these findings reveal that the inhabitants of one sector engaged in agriculture and cottage industries, while the people in the other part of the city, close to the palace, were more affluent – related to the local ruler and administrators. Our study demonstrates the potential in intra-site investigation at large, multi-period sites.

Middle Bronze Age Burials in the Southern Levant: Spartan Warriors or Ordinary People?

Abstract: Summary Intermediate and Middle Bronze Age tombs with weapons (mainly daggers) in the southern Levant were often interpreted as ‘warrior graves’. Taking into consideration new data from Rishon Le-Zion (Israel), recent work on early warfare and warriors, and a study of so-called ‘warrior graves’ in Mesopotamia (Rehm 2003), we suggest that most of these graves are not graves of elite warriors, but typical male burials. We also discuss the assumed ‘burial kit’ and the decline in numbers of weapons per burial, which is in our view related to the shift from individual burials (in the Intermediate Bronze and Middle Bronze IIA periods) to multiple shaft burials (in the Middle Bronze IIB period).

Feasting at Marj Rabba, An Early Chalcolithic Site in the Galilee

Abstract: Summary Feasting is a common part of human culture in the present and past that can serve a variety of roles such as creating and maintaining social identities within and between social groups. In zooarchaeology, feasting evidence, rather than the accumulated and mixed refuse from long-term consumption, often gives us some of the only data from individual events at a site. A cattle bone refuse pit at the site of Marj Rabba, Israel, provides evidence for feasting from the early Chalcolithic (c.4500–3600 BC) in the southern Levant. The presence of cattle feasts at Marj Rabba provides a glimpse of cultural practices in this critical transitional period that may mirror practices from earlier periods.

Late Bronze Age Oxhide and oxhide‐like ingots from areas other than the Mediterranean: problems and challenges

Abstract: Summary Oxhide ingots are probably one of the most remarkable metal artefacts that ever circulated throughout the Mediterranean during the second millennium BC. From the Levantine coast to Sardinia, oxhide ingots were produced, exchanged, used and transformed for almost six centuries (c.1600–1100/1000 BC). They are generally regarded as a class of material that is found only in the Mediterranean area. However, there are a number of oxhide ingots that have been encountered far beyond the coasts of the Mediterranean. The aim of this paper is to throw some light on these items and their significance in order to increase our understanding of the complex and far-reaching Bronze Age metal supply networks in Europe. The application of a commodity branding model also allows the possibility of achieving a deeper understanding of these items as tokens of the long-lasting links between Continental Europe and the Mediterranean.

Iron age diet at Sisak, Croatia : Archaeobotanical evidence of Foxtail Millet (Setaria Italica[L.] P. Beauv.)

Abstract: Summary Recent excavations at Sisak, Croatia, unearthed an Early Iron Age pot filled with archaeobotanical remains within the floor of a structure dating to between the sixth and fourth centuries BC. Burnt in situ the archaeobotanical remains provide unique evidence for diet and agriculture in a region where archaeobotanical evidence is rare. The preliminary results from this analysis are outlined here, with a focus on the discovery of foxtail millet (Setaria italica [L.] P. Beauv.) and its contribution to the diet of the Early Iron Age population at Sisak.

The Roman Ship 'punta Scifo d' and its Marble Cargo (Crotone, Italy)

Abstract: Summary In the first three centuries AD, large-scale building projects, both in Rome and in the western colonies, stimulated the demand for marble from the eastern quarries. The Punta Scifo D shipwreck – discovered in 1986 in the Bay of Scifo, south of Crotone, Italy, and investigated in 2011 and 2013 by a team from the Universita Ca' Foscari of Venice – is an important source for the reconstruction of this kind of trade in the Roman Empire. Studies of the cargo, dated to the third century AD, were the basis for the virtual reconstruction of a barge about 40 m long carrying a cargo of almost 340 tons. Petrographic and isotopic analyses demonstrated that it carried three different types of marble: mainly Proconnesian, some Pentelic, and one slab of Dokimean marble. The ship probably departed from the island of Marmara, and stopped at Ephesos, and perhaps also at Piraeus.

The Handle Wagging the Cup. Formal Aspects of Alcohol Consumption in the Transfer of Ideology: Anatolia and the Aegean Towards the End of the Third Millennium BC

Abstract: Fermented drinks have been socially and economically important since their advent, not only because they are functionally significant in preserving calories, but also as value-added foodstuffs incorporated into symbolically important ceremonies and feasts to increase the social value of an individual or a group’s status. Towards the end of the third millennium BC, just as wine was becoming an important commodity, the manifestation of this emphasis on the communal consumption of alcoholic beverages can be observed in the material culture of Anatolia and the Aegean with the so-called ‘west Anatolian drinking set’ consisting of drinking cups with characteristically oversized handles and beak-spouted pitchers. Against the backdrop of the socio-economic reasons for the distribution of this particular drinking set over a wide geographical area, the focus of this article is on their impact upon the prevailing local pottery traditions and the local adaptation of these vessels into the traditional repertoire where the importance of the oversized handles is recognized.

Radiocarbon Dates from the Loughcrew Cairn h Bone Slips

Abstract: Summary A total of 150 intricately carved bone slips were uncovered at the Loughcrew H passage tomb in Co. Meath, Ireland, during excavations between 1865 and 1943. Studies of the carvings identified La Tene motifs suggesting that the slips may have been Middle to Late Iron Age in date. Joseph Raftery even went so far as to argue that the megalithic tomb itself was an Iron Age construction. His theory has since been debunked, but absolute dates have not been forthcoming for either these finds or the tomb. The following Middle Iron Age results presented here are slightly earlier than the dates that had hitherto been anticipated and they help to shed light on the subsequent interactions with this tomb.

Hispania and the Atlantic Route in Roman Times: new Approaches to Ports and Trade

Abstract: Summary This paper explores the role of Hispania in the Atlantic route in Roman times. We analyse the different Atlantic Iberian territories along this route, based on recent archaeological advances and discoveries related to trade as well as the shipping infrastructure. The aim is to explain the origin and evolution of a new maritime area that was completely integrated with the political and commercial structure of the Empire, with trade routes that followed the coastal areas of the Iberian Peninsula all the way to the Mediterranean.

Immensity and Miniaturism: The Interplay of Scale and Sensory Experience in the Late Neolithic of the Maltese Islands

Abstract: Summary At first glance, the Late Neolithic (3600–2500 BC) of the Maltese Island archipelago in the central Mediterranean is a landscape of immensity dominated by megalithic stone structures. To the modern viewer, the Neolithic is materialized as magnitude across time and space. Archaeologically, it is denoted as the Temple Period, after the numerous megalithic structures found across the islands of Malta, Gozo and Comino. Although these structures elicit notions of dominance, they also obscure multiple scales of materiality within and between their assemblages, particularly the not insignificant corpus of figurines and models. This paper looks at the two extreme ends of scale, immensity and miniaturism, and their role in shaping sensory experience and social relations.

The Protopalatial State of the Western Magazines of the Palace at Malia (Crete)

Abstract: Summary The evidence available for the reconstruction of the Western Magazines of the early palace at Malia is here re-evaluated. Despite the importance given to external social agents stationed in the Protopalatial town outside the palace, our knowledge of the main building during this key period in the history of the settlement remains limited. The shallow stratigraphy associated with its construction and heavy rebuilding during the succeeding Neopalatial period obstruct a clear vision of the architectural phasing of the early building, but a new analysis focusing on building materials and techniques suggests the presence of a series of Protopalatial storage rooms behind the main facade on the West Court, later integrated into the Neopalatial building. This architectural analysis allows a better assessment of the role of the central building of Middle Bronze Age Malia.

The Via Nova Traiana Between Petra and Ayn Al‐Qana In Arabia Petraea

Abstract: Summary This paper presents new evidence, based on systematic fieldwork, concerning the most likely path of the Roman road, the via nova Traiana, in the area between Petra and Ayn al-Qana in southern Jordan Special attention is given to the work of David Graf, the most recent fieldwork study, prior to the present investigation, dealing with the same issue, that of the via nova Traiana It also presents a detailed description of the route of the Roman road, adds new information to Graf's study, and challenges some of his suggestions The paper also considers other ancient roads that were directly connected to the Roman highway

‘Twas When my Shield Turned traitor’! Establishing the Combat Effectiveness of the Greek Hoplite Shield

Abstract: Summary Greek hoplite warfare has traditionally been explored through the extant textual and pictorial evidence. This has resulted in an incomplete picture, with much of the focus on the strategic and tactical aspects of battle, to the neglect of practical and functional considerations of combat. As a consequence, many of our understandings of the nature of hoplite combat, the how, remain deficient. In this paper, I explore the structural and functional aspects of the hoplite shield, the single most important item in the Greek hoplite's panoply, to determine its efficacy in a combat environment. Through a set of controlled practical experiments, the effectiveness of the hoplite shield is tested to establish its defensive qualities vis-a-vis the long thrusting spear, the hoplite's primary offensive weapon.

Transport Amphorae in the West Hallstatt Zone: Reassessing Socio‐Economic Dynamics and Long‐Distance Mediterranean Exchange in Western Central Europe in the Early Iron Age

Abstract: Summary Trade and cultural relations between western Central Europe and the Mediterranean world in the Early Iron Age remain a major topic of discussion. The products exchanged were mainly connected with the ritual preparation and social consumption of Mediterranean wine. This article examines the question through a comparative study of transport amphorae from the entire West Hallstatt zone. The systematic analysis is based on a specialized study carried out on the material itself. Typological analyses allow us to identify where amphorae originated; previously this was thought to have been just Massalia but this now needs to be expanded to the whole Mediterranean Basin. An analysis of the distribution of amphorae enables us to identify the trajectory these products followed. A comparison with amphora types attested in potential ports in southern France and northern Italy suggests possible trade routes for specific types. Finally, a new chronological scheme for amphorae provides insights into the economic reasons behind these imports and the social impact these products had, enabling us to identify broader socio-economic trends and long-distance exchange patterns in western Central Europe.

X-Ray Fluorescence and Stable Isotope Analysis of Marble in Central Lydia, Western Turkey

Abstract: Summary This paper presents the results of carbon and oxygen stable isotope analysis on marble quarries and artefacts from central Lydia, western Turkey under the auspices of the Central Lydia Archaeological Survey (CLAS). The marble survey and sampling programme studied 11 small-scale quarries in the hinterland of the ancient city of Sardis. These quarries demonstrate evidence of ancient tool use, though their precise periods of operation were unknown prior to this study. The results presented here correlate material from these quarries with material previously studied from Sardis and from several tumuli in the monumental cemetery known as Bin Tepe. This study demonstrates that small quarries were important components of ancient social and economic landscapes, and that they are deserving of more consideration in archaeometric and marble studies. The data also point towards different social and economic factors at work in Lydian and Roman-period marble acquisition.

Unique Objects, Special Deposits and Elite Networks in Bronze Age Europe

Abstract: Summary Most material culture of later prehistoric Europe comprises common forms of pottery, personal ornaments, and tools of different kinds. But some objects stand out by virtue of their unique decoration. These special objects were often ornamented with motifs and patterns that were intended to capture and hold the viewer's attention. Many such objects were purposefully deposited, sometimes in graves, sometimes in ‘structured deposits’. In the Early and Middle Bronze Age, ornate cups played special roles, both in expressing the status of elites and in serving as common elements in long-distance connections between elites in different regions of Europe. An unusual pit at Kelheim in Bavaria, Germany, serves as a case study to explore the connections between uniquely decorated cups, the emergence of elites during the Early and Middle Bronze Age, and the formation and maintenance of long-distance connections between communities throughout Europe.

On Early Thimbles: A Seventh‐Century‐AD Example from Punta Secca, Sicily, in Context

Abstract: Summary A copper-alloy thimble was found in 2010 at Punta Secca, Sicily, in a sealed context datable by coins to the first quarter of the seventh century AD. It has generally been thought that thimbles did not reach the Mediterranean area until the ninth century AD, but at least nine metal examples are in fact attested at various places from contexts datable between the late sixth century and the early ninth. It is suggested that the increasing use of silk in clothing in the Byzantine Empire during the seventh century, probably accompanied by the use for the first time of steel needles which made the use of a finger protector imperative, explains the apparent introduction of thimbles at this time. No securely dated metal thimbles are known from sites of Roman date, except for one at Ephesus of c.AD 100. It is very tentatively suggested that this last example might represent an import from China, where thimbles (and steel needles) are attested from at least the third century BC onwards.

Placing Sanctuaries in Their Socio‐Political Landscapes: A Diachronic Approach to the Late Iron Age Communities in South‐East Iberia (Fourth–Second Centuries BC)

Abstract: Summary This paper explores the relationship between the historical dynamics and the transformations observed in pre-Roman cult places in eastern Iberia between the fourth and second centuries BC. These are analysed through a case study: the sanctuary of La Luz (Murcia), located in the Segura Valley, in south-east Iberia. Three main religious changes are discussed from this perspective: the development of the sanctuary in the fourth century BC, the changes observed in its archaeological record in the third century BC, and finally its destruction in the second century BC. These offer a diachronic view of the transformations, and illustrate the different levels at which they were expressed, from the archaeological record to the landscape. The work aims to provide a different perspective from previous studies in this area and a new view of the cult places in south-east Iberia within their socio-political landscape and the Mediterranean historical context.

Toilet Instruments: Symbols of Dissent?

Abstract: Summary A set of mid-first-century AD toilet instruments from Silchester includes tweezers in the form of a sheathed sword and a lanceolate nail-cleaner with iron core. Other tweezers from the same site confirm the set was made by an innovative local smith. Linking the set to the general sword- and spear-shaped forms and indigenous use of nail-cleaners, the question is raised of how far these small personal items reflected British disaffection immediately after the conquest, and particularly with the disarmament of the Atrebates and other tribes.